points at all the principal cities, and removed most of the Saxon prelates. Among others he deposed Stigand, and appointed Lanfranc to that see, a prelate of great learning and piety. The expulsion of Wolfstan, afterwards canonized as a saint, from the see of Worcester, seems to have been prevented by a most affecting speech from that aged bishop, when required to give up his crosier. One badge of servitude which was felt greatly by the English, was a law directing that all fires should be put out at the tolling of a bell at eight o'clock. This bell, which is still rung at ancient places, is called the curfew, from two words which signify that fires should be covered or put out. It was William's purpose to abolish the very language of the Saxons, and he therefore desired that all laws should be written, and all pleadings conducted in Norman-French; and of these vain attempts to destroy our noble language, some traces still exist in the ancient forms of our public courts. To subdue, however, the spirit of the Saxons, the Conqueror relied mainly on the complete establishment in England of a system called the feudal law, at that time prevailing in most parts of Europe. By this system the whole kingdom was parcelled out into so many chief baronies, which were held of the crown on condition of military service, and these were in like manner divided into knights' fees, which were held of the superior barons on the same tenure of service or vassalage. The vassal did homage to his lord for the lands which he held, and was bound to serve him in war, and contribute to his ransom if taken prisoner. This system was not fruitless of generous protection on the one side, and honourable

6 "To canonize a person." This phrase is derived from the fact that after a person's excellences were found to be such as to entitle him to be called a saint, his name was put into the canon or rule for observing festivals; but, nota bene, although "canonization" was practised earlier, the word itself does not appear to have been in use before the twelfth century.

7 The word feud, derived from a barbarous Latin word, feudum, or the classical word fœdus, a covenant, meant an allotment of land under condition of serving a superior lord in war. Feudal tenure of land, is holding land under such condition. The feudal law, or system, is the state of things thus brought about; e. g. when Wales was conquered by England, its princes were no longer independent, but feudal holders of their territory under the English king.

loyalty on the other; but it was capable of being dreadfully abused, from the power which the lord possessed, especially when his vassal was under age. He had then the custody of the minor's lands and person, and had the power even of disposing of his vassal in marriage.

This reign was unfavourable to the independence of the English Church. William indeed was himself little inclined to part with any of his power to pope Gregory VII. (or Hildebrand), who was then putting forward the most extravagant claims of supremacy; and his answer to the Pope's demand that he would take an oath of fealty to him and his successors was, "Homage to thee I have not chosen -I do not choose-to do. I owe it not on my own account; nor do I find that it has been performed by those before me." But with all this, having invaded England under the pretended sanction of a papal grant, and relying so much as he did on the clergy for support, he doubtless in the main increased the influence of Rome; and the Norman bishops whom he brought in were considerably more infected with Romish errors than the Saxon clergy.

One point William certainly conceded to Rome on Gregory's importunity-the continuance of the payment called Peter-pence. But this was in its origin a voluntary payment or offering made by Ina, king of Wessex, being in pilgrimage to Rome, in the year of our Lord, 720; it was a penny for every house. The like was given by Offa, king of Mercia, A.D. 794; not as a tribute to the Pope, but to sustain the English school or college at Rome; and it derived its name from being collected on the day of St. Peter ad Vincula. From these local payments for a particular object and from private feelings, the payment had become general. William could probably scarce trace its origin, and acquiesced in it. The practice was first prohibited by Edward III., and abrogated by Henry VIII. After being revived by Queen Mary, it was at length wholly abrogated by Queen Elizabeth.

Church architecture began to be more studied in William's reign than it had been before. Either to his encouragement, or to the piety of individuals, we owe the commencement of the crypt or under-church of Canterbury cathedral; part of St. Alban's abbey, and of the cathedrals of Winchester and Rochester, are attributable to his era. [H. s. 1.]

Among the learned men of William's court were Ingulphus, abbot of Croyland, his secretary, who wrote a history of that monastery, interspersed with records of the English kings; and William of Poitiers, his chaplain, who has left an account of the Norman revolution.

There is a work of the Conqueror, which has lasted to our times, and is a proof of his wisdom and ability. This is a book called Doomsday Book; in which is contained an account of all the landed property throughout a great part of the kingdom, given after an accurate survey.

The latter years of his life were embittered by the quarrels and undutiful behaviour of his sons, and also by the death of his queen, Matilda, a lady of remarkable piety and sweetness of character. His younger sons, William and Henry, on one occasion, threw some dirty water over Robert, their eldest brother, who drew his sword, and would have struck his brothers in his fury. Not obtaining the satisfaction he expected for this boyish folly, which he took as a studied affront, he withdrew from the court, and afterwards revolted against his father, demanding to be at once invested with the duchies of Normandy and Maine. The Conqueror replied to this demand, that it was not his custom to strip till he went to bed. In one of the encounters in this unnatural contest, it is said that the father and son, unknown to each other, were engaged in deadly combat, and Robert was on the point of dispatching his own father, when William raised his vizor, and Robert was surprised and shocked to see his father's face. He thanked God for saving him from so great a crime, and begging his father to forgive him, he mounted him on his own horse, as the king's had been killed in the fight. The king died in Normandy, from a hurt received from the pommel of his saddle, and was buried at Caen, between the towers of the noble cathedral which he had founded. His funeral was disturbed by one who declared that that very spot had been unrighteously taken from his father, and summoned the departed king before the tribunal of God to answer for that act of oppression. How many a similar appeal might have been made by his English subjects! His mere passion for the chase had been indulged to such excess, that he had turned out the miserable peasants from a wide tract of country in Hants, still called the New Forest, in order to