the other.

Exchange signifies also a place in most considerable cities, wherein the merchants, negotiants, agents, bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other persons concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at certain times, in order to confer and treat together of matters relating to exchanges, assurances, freightments, and other mercantile negotiations, both by sea and land, as above described. These assemblies are held with so much exactness, that the absence of a merchant, &c. makes him suspected of drawing to a failure or bankruptcy, as not being able to stand the 'change.

BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

BILLS OF EXCHANGE are of comparatively modern invention, owing their origin to the necessity, in extensive commercial transactions, of remitting money in a more safe and commodious manner than can be done by specie or bullion.

*

SIR THOMAS GRESHAM, founder of the Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, was the son of Sir Richard Gresham, a wealthy merchant, and Lord Mayor of London, at London in 1519, and finished his education at Caius who was of a good family of Norfolk. Thomas was born College, then Gonville, in Cambridge, where he made such improvements in learning, that Dr. Caius, the founder of the college, styled him, Doctissimus Mercator, or the Shortly after leaving college, he very learned merchant. Mercers' Company. He amassed a very large fortune, engaged in trade, and in 1543 became a member of the being successively agent for Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, at Antwerp. He founded the College above named, for lectures in divinity, law, physic, astronomy, geometry, music, and rhetoric; besides endowing many sham Lectures are now read in a room over the Royal public charities. He died suddenly in 1579. The GreExchange.

OBSTINACY.

OBSTINACY is firmness carried to excess; a stubborn pertinacity, or adherence to our purpose, right or wrong; a determination to resist commands or entreaties, whether reasonable or otherwise; and to persist in a purpose even though attended with imminent danger.

Ignorance is usually the parent of obstinacy. Men whose It does not appear that any thing answering to our minds are imbued with valuable knowledge are ever open Bills of Exchange was in use amongst the Greeks or to conviction; they are ready to listen to advice, and are Romans: the first account we have of them is, that they capable of weighing it well; of perceiving its correctness, were introduced and brought into general use by the Jews or of discovering its fallacy: they wish to pursue the and Lombards when banished from different countries for their real or supposed crimes; before their withdrawal from succeeded by Conrad III., nephew of Henry V., but the throne those countries, they usually contrived to deposit as muching disputed by Henry, as above mentioned, gave rise to an almost interminable war. The imperial army was commanded by of their wealth, as they could secrete from the rapacious Frederick, duke of Suabia, who, being born at the village of hands of their persecutors, in the custody of friends, on Heighibelin, gave his soldiers the name of Gibbelines, an epithet by which the imperial party was 'distinguished, while the Pope's whom they drew bills, which they negotiated by means adherents grew famous under that of Guelphs. of merchants and travellers.

As the Jews were expelled from France in 1143, and from England in 1290, and the first bills were negotiated at Hamburgh, in 1188, the coincidence of date confirms this account of their origin; they were introduced likewise into India and China, and were common in Amsterdam in the thirteenth century. These latter were issued chiefly by Italians of the faction of the Gibbelines, who,

* The Guelphs and Gibbelines were two celebrated parties of Germany; who, by their violence and inveteracy, disquieted the German Empire for several centuries. These contests arose from the imperial throne having been disputed by Henry the Hanghty, duke of Bavaria, the name of whose family was Guelph; hence those who espoused his party were called Guelphs; an appellation afterwards usually bestowed on the enemies of the Emperor. Previously to these disputes, the States had conferred the imperial dignity on Lothario, duke of Saxe-Suplemberg, who was greatly distinguished by a passionate love of peace, and an exact distribution of justice. Being seized with a dangerous disease, which carried him off in the 12th year of his reign, he was

Henry V. of Germany married Maud, or Matilda, daughter of Henry I. king of England: but the royal family, of Britain is born in 1156. She married Henry, duke of Saxony, by whom descended from Maude, the eldest daughter of Henry II., who was she had several children, and it is to one of those, named Otho, who succeeded his father in the dukedom, that we trace the lineal descent of the present king of England: thus Otho, duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg. Albert I., his son. Albert II., his son." Magnus, his son. Bernard, his son. Frederick, his son. Otho II., his son. Henry, his son. Ernestus, his son. William, his son. George, his son.

Ernestus, his son, married Sophia, daughter of the princess Elizabeth, and granddaughter of James I., of England. Their heir was George, afterwards George I. of England.

This building has long since been destroyed, and upon its site ́ is built the Excise Office,

PINNOCK'S GUIDE TO KNOWLEDGE.

course that wisdom points out, and they take care, if possible, to ascertain this before they proceed; but, having once done so, they suffer no obstacles, unless they are insuperable, to stop their progress, no difficulties to abate their ardour; this is not obstinacy, but laudable firmness. But ignorant persons will seldom listen to the voice of admonition; or, if they do, they have not sufficient understanding to profit by it; they see not the drift of the reasoning that is employed to divert them from an improper pursuit; they cannot be moved by arguments which are, beyond their comprehension; nothing but the evil consequences of their obstinacy can convince them that they were in error.

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"

Obstinacy, which arises from a mistaken idea that it is laudable firmness, may be pitied but cannot much be blamed; it is acting wrongly under an impression that it is right; and many have been the persons who have forfeited their property, and even their lives, from this unhappy mistake. directed by an enlightened mind, would have rendered Such a determination of purpose, them fit for great enterprises, suited to undertakings of difficulty and danger; but, joined with ignorance, it merely rendered them determined in wrong, and firmly bent on things which reason condemns and prudence would avoid. This species of obstinacy has been most frequently, displayed in religious and political matters. Many have perished at the stake and on the scaffold for a pertinacious adherence to opinions which the progress of knowledge has shewn to be, not only erroneous, but pernicious; opinions of which, could they have enjoyed the advantages of a liberal education, and of the discoveries of science, they would have been ashamed, and would have voluntarily rejected. I

But, although obstinacy arising from ignorance, and from a persuasion that that which is wrong is right, is to be pitied, unless the subjects of it have wilfully neglected the means of better information, there are persons who will determinedly adhere to an opinion or purpose which they know to be improper and pregnant with dangerous consequences; they take a pride and a pleasure in resisting the advice and entreaties of those who wish them well; they even put a constraint on their own inclination, and refuse to yield their own convictions of propriety rather than appear to give way to another's judgment, or to be influenced by anything but their own will; this is the vice of a weak mind, of a cowardly disposition, which resists the wishes of others when it can give pain by so doing with impunity. There is a species of obstinacy frequently practised, which inflicts misery on others and injury on itself; which feels a detestable satisfaction in distressing persons who are in its power, though to its own loss. It is most commonly displayed by merciless creditors towards those who are indebted to them. creditors ought to be protected in their just rights, and True it is that he who can pay his debts, but will not, or who has acted fraudulently, or has prodigally wasted what was not his own, justly deserves to be treated with rigour. Yet it usually happens, that such persons are crafty enough to elude the vengeance of the law, and it is only those who have become insolvent by unavoidable misfortunes, and who have too much probity to make use of chicanery and deceit to gain their ends, that suffer by obstinacy. It frequently happens that men thus situated experience commiseration from all except one or two wrong-headed persons, who will not agree to such arrangements as might be for mutual advantage, but insist on it that the law shall take its course; in consequence of which the small assets that

[DEC. 14.

might have been of some importance, if divided without expense, are swallowed up in the vortex of legal proceedings; and the unhappy beings who might, under other circumstances, have again exerted their industry, and profited by former oversights, are deprived of the means of so doing, and, perhaps, incarcerated in a jail, to linger out their time in hopeless indolence. Such obstinacy proceeds from hardness of heart.

the wishes of others. from. habit rather than from any Some persons are constitutionally obstinate; they resist pleasure they take in so doing; they are not always so completely inflexible as never to yield, but in general though their inclinations are on its side. they are positively bent on refusing compliance, even sion and mild entreaty are lost upon such, and only increase their obstinacy; they can be wrought on by no Gentle persuaother means than positive injunctions, when such a liberty can be taken. Intimate friends or relatives, who can their stubborn natures; but nothing short of this will, in venture thus to do, may, by insisting on obedience, bend any way, avail.

to move, persuade, or influence them to relinquish their The temper of some persons is such, that any attempt own wishes or intentions, serve only to rouse them to greater opposition. Turning a deaf ear to reason, they triumph in the thought of doing as they please; and arguments, entreaties, threats, are all unavailing to move them, in the least, from their stupid purposes.

always correct, and his views just, obstinate adherence to Were the reason of man infallible, were his purposes them would be only a proper firmness, and any relaxation of it must be a fault; but while, on the contrary, his most schemes may be pregnant with mischief of which he is deliberate plans may be ill-formed, his best devised not aware; as he may be blindly rushing on destruction, while he fondly thinks that he is proceeding, with his eyes open, in the path of prosperity; it behoves every man to listen calmly to the voice of admonition, to weigh well the opinions of others, and cautiously to endeavour to discover where the truth lies. If he do this with cool impartiality, and with a determination to embrace it, when discovered; should he still see his own judgment most fit to be trusted, an inflexible adherence to it will be no longer obstinacy, but a proper decision of character, founded on reason, and maintained by wisdom and prudence.

CRITICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOME OF THE
ENGLISH SYNONYMES.

is to judge of their intrinsic value; and to prize is to
ciate is to judge of the current value of things; to estimate
TO APPRECIATE-TO ESTIMATE-TO PRIZE. -To appre-
define the value at which things are appreciated or esti-
mated. The gew-gaws of fashion, though appreciated
high, are estimated low: while rare, they are prized in
gold; when common, in copper.

idea of levity, and small, of slenderness. Both words are
LITTLE-SMALL.-Etymologically, little suggests an
used without much discrimination, when speaking of ma-
terial objects; but little is more contemptuous, and is
oftener applied metaphorically.
but never a fat small man.
action; never a small action.
We say, a fat little man,
thread, yet only the slender is called a small thread,
It was a mean thing, a little
A short thread is a little

of vapour being gathered into drops, the drops descend, and in descending, pass through a colder region, and each drop is frozen into an icicle, shooting itself forth into several points; then, continuing to descend, meet with some currents of warmer air, or in being wafted to and fro, and touching each other, some are thawed and blunted, again frozen into clusters, and entangled together so as to fall down in the form of what we call flakes. The lightness of snow, although it is really ice, is the consequence of the extent of its surface compared with its bulk; on the same principle that gold may be spread out till it will float upon a mere breath of air. The whiteness of snow is owing to the ticles into which it is divided; if ice be pounded, it will very small appear equally white.

par

Signior Beccaria was of opinion, that clouds of snow differed only from rain in the circumstance of the cold which froze them; that the regular diffusion of snow and its structure (particularly some snow or hail which fell about Turin, and which he called rosette), showed that clouds of snow were acted upon by some uniform cause, like electricity, which he endeavoured to explain. He was confirmed in this conjecture, by observing that his apparatus for ascertaining the electricity of the atmosphere, was always electrified by snow as well as rain. tense electricity, he conjectured, united the particles A more inof hail more closely than the more moderate electricity did those of snow, in the same way that we see the drops of rain falling from a thunder cloud, larger than those of ordinary rain.

Experience

and, without going back to the Pharisees of old, we may WE have before adverted to the Jewish superstitions, of days and times, and their washings and purifyings of notice their present peculiarities of meats, their observances cups, dishes, &c., as well as other ordinances of a mere ritual law, altogether superstitious, and no more indicative is of its fruitfulness. But if we wonder at the permanency of sincere religion, than an abundance of leaves on a tree that abound in, and deface the ceremonies of, the Christian of the Hebraic superstitions, what shall we say of those Catholic Church? surely these have no excuse, except it be as to render it necessary to satisfy the consciences of the on the presumption that ignorance abounds so extensively weak, or sway the vulgar by imposition and ceremonial institutions; we will not, for the sake of imbecile minds nor will we advert with severity to the silly peculiarities and feeble understandings, apply the terms of condemnation that such idle deformities of pure religion deserve, purblind reason of imperfect intellect, or they are the of sectarians; they are the phantoms that pervade the tares that grow in the wheat, and which we refrain from rooting out, lest with them we should pull up the wheat also; we must, as it respects the infected soil, let both of knowledge, separate the obnoxious weed, and reserve grow together, till the husbandman shall, at his harvest the pure grain to sow in all the fields of science and society.

DR. JOHNSON'S LETTER TO MR. BARNARD,
Librarian to George III., on the Formation of a Royal Library,

An artificial snow may be made by placing a tall phial of aquafortis near the fire till it is warm, and filings of silver, a few at a time, being put into it, after a brisk ebullition, the silver will slowly dissolve. If the phial be then placed in a window where it is cold, as it cools the the visible signs of superstition in the mind; they do All those peculiarities and outward distinctions are silver particles will shoot into crystals, and several run- not give efficacy to religion; they are, in fact, incumning together, will form a flake similar to snow, which brances, like the armour of Saul to David, when he went will then descend to the bottom of the phial; while out against the Philistine, as true religion does against descending, they will appear like silver snow, and will lie gigantic vice. at the bottom of the phial like real snow upon the ground. no guise nor disguise; and, when stripped of superstition, "In the spirit of the living God," it wants We will now consider the uses of snow; for in common ground.it will be better known, more admired, and more uniwith every other phenomena in nature, when understood, versal, than it has ever yet been found in the world. it is found to be of real utility to man. proves that snow is very beneficial to the nourishment of the earth; particularly in the colder regions, where the ground is covered with it for several months, and where it serves to guard the corn and vegetation from the intense cold and piercing winds. The internal portion of the earth, on what principle is not well understood, is uniformly heated to the 48th degree of Fahrenheit. In this tion undertaken, like yours, for the importation of literature; and, heat the vegetable juices will not freeze, and to them it is therefore, though having never travelled myself, I am very little "SIR,-It is natural for a scholar to interest himself in an expediconducted when the cold is greater on the surface than qualified to give advice to a traveller; yet, that I may not seem they can bear. Different vegetables will bear different inattentive to a design so worthy of regard, I will try whether the degrees of heat and cold; but too intense cold at the present state of my health will suffer me to lay before you what roots destroys all vegetation. Providence therefore vides, that when the cold on the surface is so great as observation or report has suggested to me, that may direct to injure vegetation, that cold, which renders the rain by a wantonness, rather than by use, are always passing from your inquiries, or facilitate your success. Things of which the unnecessary, and would of itself destroy vegetable life, is poorer to richer countries; and therefore, though Germany and mere rarity make the value, and which are prized at a high rate made the instrument of preserving it; for it freezes the Italy were principally productive of typographical curiosities; rain, which falling on the ground in the shape of snow, pre-I do not so much imagine that they are now to be found there serves the interior warmth of the earth, supplies sufficient in great abundance. moisture if needed, and becomes a beautiful and ingenious editions, which prevailed among the English about half a century An eagerness for some books, and early covering for the preservation of vegetation during the incle- ago, filled our shops with all the splendour and nicety of literature; ment season of the year. Can any thing be more demon-and, when the Harleian Catalogue was published, many of the books were bought for the library of the king of France.

pro

strative of the superintending. providence of the Creator, or of the beneficent design influencing every principle in the universe?

alluded to in our late Article on that subject.

enlarged the library under your care, the present stock is nearly
"I believe, however, that by the diligence with which you have
exhausted, that new purchases supply the booksellers with new

stores; you will not be able to do much more than glean up single books as accident shall produce them. This, therefore, is the time for visiting the continent.

"What addition you can hope to make by ransacking other countries, we will now consider. English literature you will not seek in any place but in England. Classical learning is diffused every where, and is not, except by accident, inore copious in one part of the polite world than in another. But every country has literature of its own, which may be but gathered in its native soil. The studies of the learned are influenced by forms of government and modes of religion; and, therefore, those books are necessary and common in some places which, where different opinions, or different names prevail, are of little use, and, for that reason, rarely to be found.

'success will be always proportionate to your diligence. You
are too well acquainted with literary history not to know that
тапу books derive their value from the reputation of the printers.
of the celebrated printers you do not need to be informed; and,
if you did, might consult Baillet's 'Jugemens des Sçavans.' The
productions of Aldus are enumerated in the Bibliotheca Græca,
so that you may know when you have them all, which is always
of use, as it prevents needless search. The great ornaments of a
library, furnished for magnificence as well as use, are the first eli-
tions of which, therefore, I would not willingly neglect the mention.
You know, Sir, that the annals of typography begin with the
Codex, 1457; but there is great reason to believe that these are
latent in obscure corners of books printed before it. The secular
feast, in memory of the inveation of printing is celebrated in the
fortieth year of the century. If this tradition, therefore, is right,
the art had, in 1457, been already exercised nineteen years.
"There prevails, among typographical antiquaries, a vague
opinion that the Bible had been printed three times before the
edition of 1462, which Calmet calls, La première Edition bien
averrée.' One of these editions has lately been discovered in a
convent, and transplanted into the Freach king's library. Another'
copy has likewise been found, but I know not whether of the same
impression or another. These discoveries are sufficient to raise
hope and instigate inquiry. In the purchase of old books, let me
recommend to you to inquire, with great caution, whether they are
perfect. In the first edition, the loss of a leaf is not easily ob-
served. You remember how near we both were to purchasing
a mutilated missal at a high price.

"All this, perhaps, you know already, and, therefore, my letter
may be of no use. I am, however, desirous to shew you, that I
wish prosperity to your undertaking. The advice now I will give
is of more importance than all the rest, of which I therefore hope
you will have still less need. You are going into a part of the world,
divided, as it is said, between bigotry and atheism! Such repre-
sentations are always hyperbolical; but there is certainly enough
of both to alarm any mind whatever for piety and truth. Let
not the contempt of superstition precipitate you into infidelity; or
the horror of infidelity ensnare you in superstition. I sincerely
wish you successful and happy, for
"I am, Sir,

"Thus in Italy you may expect to meet with canonists and scholastic divines; in Germany, with writers on the feudal laws; and in Holland, with civilians. The schoolmen and canonists must not be neglected, for they are useful to many purposes; nor too anxiously sought, for their influence among us is much lessened by the Reformation; of the canonists, at least, a few eminent writers may be sufficient. The schoolmen are of more general value; but the feudal and civil law I cannot but wish to see complete. The feudal constitution is the original of the law of property over all the civilized part of Europe; and the civil law, as it is generally understood to include the law of nations, may be called, with great propriety, a regal study. Of these books, which have been often published and diversified by various modes of impression, a royal library should have, at least, the most curious edition, the most splendid, and the most useful. The most curious edition is commonly the first, and the most useful may be expected among the last. Thus, of Tully's Offices, the edition of Fust is the most curious, and that of Grotius the most useful. The most splendid the eye will discern. With the old printers you are now become well acquainted. If you can find any collection of their productions to be sold, you will undoubtedly buy it; but this can scarcely be hoped, and you must catch up single volumes when you can find them. In every place things often occur when they are least expected. I was shewn a Welsh grammar, written in Welsh, and printed at Milan, I believe, before any grammar of that language had been printed here. Of purchasing entire libraries, I know not whether the inconvenience may not overbalance the advantage. Of libraries collected with general views, one will have many books in common with another. When you have bought two collections, you will find that you have bought many books twice over, and many in each which you have left at home, and therefore did not want. HISTORICAL & BIOGRAPHICAL MEMORANDA And, when you have selected a small number, you will have the rest to sell at a great loss, or to transport hither at perhaps a greater. It will generally be more commodious to buy the few that want, at a price somewhat advanced, than to encumber yourself with useless books. But libraries collected for particular studies, will be a very valuable acquisition. The collection of an eminent Civilian, Feudist, or Mathematician, will perhaps have very few superfluities. Topography, or local history, prevails much in many parts of the continent. I have been told that scarcely a village in Italy wants its historian. These books may be generally neglected; but some will deserve attention, from the celebrity of the place, the eminence of the authors, or the beauty of the sculptures. Sculpture has always been more cultivated among other nations than among us. The old art of cutting on wood, which decorated the books of ancient impression, was never arried to any excellence here; and the practice of engraving on copper, has never been much employed among us in adorning

books.

you

"The old books with wooden cuts are to be diligently sought; the designs were often made by great masters, and the prints are such as cannot be made by any artist now living. It will be of great use to collect, in every place, maps of the adjacent country, and plans of towns, buildings, and gardens. By this can you form a more valuable body of geography than can otherwise be had. Many countries have been very exactly surveyed, but it must not be expected that the correctness of actual mensuration will be preserved when the maps are reduced, by a contracted scale, and incorporated into a general system. The king of Sardinia's Italian dominions are not large, yet the maps made of them, in the reign of Victor, fill two atlantic folios. This part of your design will deserve particular regard, because in this your

"May 28th, 1768."

"Your affectionate humble Servant, "SAMUEL JOHNSON."

OF DECEMBER.

On the 3d, in 1823, died the celebrated BELZONI, known by the name of the "Strong Man." His stature was 6 feet 7 inches, and his feats of strength were wonderful. He was a native of Padua, in Italy. His researches in Egypt and Nubia, of which he published a very interesting account, entitle him to an honourable remembrance. He died at Benin, in Africa, on his route to Houssa and Timbuctoo, in search of new discoveries.

On this day, in 1798, MR. PITT, in the House of Commons, proposed the famous Income Tax, of 10 per cent., on an estimate of £100,000,000.; taking the land rental at £50,000,000, the houses at £5,000,000., and the profits arising from traffic at £40,000,000. By this financial plan, all incomes netting more than £60. annually were liable to an impost, while those that produced £200, and upwards, were subject to a yearly payment of £10. per cent. to support the exigencies of the state.

On the 4th, in 1661, the duke of YORK returned from a cruize having captured 130 Dutch merchant ships, on their return homeward, laden with wine and brandy, chiefly from Bordeaux. This proceeding, although prior to the declaration of war, was sutficiently justified by the Dutch admiral, DE RUYTER having previously fallen upon the English factories at Cape Verd, on the coast of Africa, as well as his attempt to seize the island of Barcadoes, and several other English plantations, The depredations committed by the Dutch in the East Indies, and on the high seas, had also been frequent, in violation of every specific principle, so that the present retaliation was fully justified by the law of nations.

MICHAEL ADRIAN RUYTER was a brave and celebrated Dutch admiral. He was born at Flushing, in 1607, and after many gallant actions, he was killed on the coast of Sicily, in an engagement with the French, in 1676.