ing of paragraphs in a whole composition. These are unity, emphasis, and coherence. Unity demands that words be so arranged as to express one idea in a sentence, and one alone; emphasis, that they be so arranged as to give prominence to the more important parts of the idea; coherence, that they be so arranged that their mutual relations can be easily and clearly understood. Similarly, in a paragraph, the sentence grouping (and, in a whole composition, the paragraph grouping) must provide for a single idea, for the throwing of stress on the main point, and for the connection of thought.

Such is the simple theory which lies at the basis of good writing. It may be stated in different ways, but the essence remains much the same. Men may write well without having realized that they are fol lowing principles much like these, the knowledge or realization of which they had acquired by imitation or practice; but such cases are not common, and he is fortunate who can learn the principles of the art in youth and in the regular course of formal instruction, where his teacher and his classmates, by precept and criticism and discussion, can help him to appreciate and to master them. These principles, moreover, should be taken as suggestions of the truth, rather than as final statements of truth; they should not be accepted as rigid dogmas, capable of demonstration, but as the generalizations of writers of skill and experience, tested by the practice of many men of many kinds.

2. The Art of Composition. While mastering the elementary and preliminary theory of rhetoric just summarized, the pupil has doubtless had much practice in actual composition. This first course of study over, he should go on, usually in the work of his final year at school, with systematic instruction in what may be called the art of composition, as distinguished from his previous work in what is usually called formal rhetoric. It is this systematic study of the art of composition which we are now beginning. We shall see what kinds and forms of writing most frequently occur, and discuss the principles which govern success in each of these forms. We shall also study good models, analyze unsuccessful attempts, to see wherein they fail, and ourselves make many trials. At the end of the year we should each be able to understand what are the main principles to be considered in all of the chief kinds of writing, and to produce something characteristic and interesting in each of them. We shall thus be fitted not only to give better expression to our more mature thoughts now and in years to come, but to enjoy more keenly the written expressions of the thoughts of others, and to value them more at their true worth.

-

3. Essays. The student should have no fear of essay-writing. From the work of the preceding year he has learned to choose his words with fair correctness, to frame a good sentence and a good paragraph, and to see in general the way in which longer compositions should be built up. He can therefore approach

Of

his present work without dread or nervousness. course, his brain has not reached maturity, and he cannot be expected to write with the ease and vigor of an older man. But the thoughts of youth arc full of freshness, frankness, and charm, and, if he puts his mind on his work, there is nothing he will write which will not be heard or read with interest by his teacher and his classmates. All that he needs to do

is (1) to write a neat, clear hand; (2) to keep up the habits of clear and definite statement which he acquired in his previous work; (3) to choose a subject in which he is interested, and (4) to write frankly what he thinks about it. Good subjects abound. There is the whole course of his school work and his out-ofschool experience from which to draw. What interests him will interest others, and he will be surprised to find that he himself can be interested in almost any subject which lies within the realm of his knowledge. He should always write with the thought of his hearers uppermost in his mind. How, he must keep asking himself, can I best make them understand this, believe this, or see what I describe or narrate?

A word of advice, too, as to the preparation of an essay may be of service. Choose first the subject, and let the choice be made a day or two in advance, if possible. If several subjects occur to you, take the one which, after a short deliberation, seems best, but do not try first one and then another, thereby wasting time and strength. The subject chosen, keep it in mind at odd moments and think what in general

it is that you will say. tion comes, make first a little plan, paragraph by paragraph, jotting down in each section notes of the details you expect to use there, and, if there be time, defer the actual writing until another sitting. When you again take up your plan, read it over carefully, altering it if necessary, and then, as rapidly as possible, write the whole essay. At a third sitting, again look over your work, correcting and polishing it, and make a clean copy of it. If you can, look again over this copy, after an interval, before handing it in, to make sure that you have made no minor error. If the composition is very short, it may be done at a sitting, but in that case much the same course of procedure should be followed. Above all, do not worry over your writing. Keep your head clear, avoid postponing your task until the last moment, and do your best. If your teacher or your classmates criticise your work severely, take their comments calmly and thankfully. What you wish to learn is how to tell others what you know, and if others do not understand you or feel the force of what you say, you should be interested in knowing why and how you have failed. It may be added that you will be the gainer if you can read your work privately to a friend before submitting it to your teacher and classmates. Ask him whether he understands fully the point you mean to make. If he does not, find out why, and mend your work accordingly. You will also be helped by reading your work aloud to yourself after you have

When the time for composi

finished it, making sure that it sounds well, and by ́ cultivating, in general, the habit of realizing, as you write, how the words would sound if spoken.

4. Reading and Composition. The reading of good books will help every young writer. He should be accustomed to reading of various sorts-reading for sheer pleasure and amusement, as in Ivanhoe, The Last of the Mohicans, or Treasure Island; reading for information combined with pleasure, as in Stanley's Through the Dark Continent or Prescott's Conquest of Mexico; reading for the training of the mind and the taste, as in the school work in English literature. Except when carried away by excitement, as is natural and proper in the story of adventure, he should read with care, with sufficient slowness to catch the full force and value of the writer's words, and to become familiar with the swing of his style. He should not necessarily try to imitate with closeness what he reads. The good author writes with a subtlety, charm, and delicacy beyond the reach of a boy, on different subjects, with greater experience and knowledge, on a larger scale. The student should feel the stimulus of what he reads, and be thereby unconsciously the better writer; but when he comes to put his own thoughts on paper, he will in general do well to express them in the way most natural to him-simply, plainly, frankly, as is appropriate to his youth and character.