education, at every step the effect of society in shaping the individual consciousness is recognized. Likewise, while no separate treatment is devoted to educational ideals, yet a discussion of this phase of the subject is interspersed throughout the book.

CHAPTER II

ADAPTATION, ADJUSTMENT, AND SPECIALIZATION OF FUNCTIONS

General Considerations. The previous chapter has prepared the way for a wider conception of education than that generally held by the popular mind. Most definitions of education characterize it as a preparatory stage for something yet to come. This is the truth, but not the whole truth. Spencer was right in regarding education as a preparation for complete living, but Dewey has furnished a desirable supplement by showing that all life processes and activities are a vital part of education. Consequently while we properly regard the formal, artificial educational processes as preparation for adult life, let us not forget that the very maintenance of an existence is a schooling more rigorous and influential than any artificial exercises we may interpose.

Since all of life's experiences are contributory factors, whether we will or no, we must then include in our educational philosophy not only mental, moral, and even physical education, but we must make our consideration cover a field as broad as life itself. Biology, the science of life, is not confined, as many seem to suppose, to worms, insects, beetles, and algæ; but includes man as well-not only physical but psychical and moral man. It is perfectly proper to speak of the biological consideration of memory, imagination, instinct, the emotions, love of right, etc. They all have their genetic or developmental aspect. In dealing with these, even in a practical way in the school-room, we ought to know how they differ in children and adults, in different families, in different children, in different races, their laws of growth and development, their instinctive beginnings, and their

hereditary variations. Consequently this and several succeeding chapters will deal with the biological phases of education.

With these preliminary remarks and with the admonition to keep constantly in mind that experience and education, fundamentally considered, are one and the same thing, we shall enter upon the discussion of some concrete facts showing how adjustment of various organs, organisms, and functions to ever-varying conditions has produced modified organs, organisms, and functions, in harmony with the demands of new environments. Illustrations will be drawn from lower animal life and even from the plant world to exemplify the points under consideration. Similar processes though often infinitely more complex, affect man's progress and destiny and constitute the essential features of education.

Adaptation in Unicellular Animals. Without varied environment and consequent varied experiences, development, progress, education in the best sense could not be. In the first chapter it was shown that anything is educative which acts upon individuals or a species so as to mould them to new ways or to bias their future conduct. The resultant tendencies constitute the education received. With this idea more firmly in mind, let us consider the unicellular animals in their relation to environment, and study in them a most primitive educational experience. These little creatures can exist only under tolerably uniform conditions. A slight increase or decrease of heat means destruction to them. Their aqueous environment is a relatively simple, uniform, and unchanging medium in which to exist. They have little to learn to fit them for this environment. It is probable that they have been little modified through long ages. President Jordan says, "That the character of the body structure of the Protozoa has changed but little since early geologic times is explained by the even, unchanging character of their surroundings. The oceans of former ages have undoubtedly been essentially like the oceans of to-day-not in extent and position, but in their character of place of habitation for ani

mals. The environment is so simple and uniform that there is little demand for diversity of habits and consequent diversity of body structure. Where life is easy there is no necessity for complex structure or complicated habits of living."1 But even here we find individual and race adaptations and modifications which permanently influence all subsequent actions. That is, these minute animals are in that sense educated.

2

Experiments in Adaptation.-Lloyd Morgan records the results of experiments by Dr. Dallinger to determine whether monads could gradually become acclimatized to a temperature higher than 60° Fahr., that which is normal to them. By the end of four months the temperature had been raised to 70° without destroying them. On reaching 73° adverse conditions were observed. A rest of two months was made at this point, and then the gradual increase resumed. In five months 78° was reached. "By a series of advances, with periods of rest between, a temperature of 158° Fahr. was reached. It was estimated that the research extended over half a million generations. Here then, these monads became gradually acclimatized to a temperature more than double that to which their ancestors had been accustomed-a temperature which brought rapid death to their unmodified relatives."

Although allowing for elimination of the unfit, Morgan says: "But in any case, the fact remains that the survivors had, in half a million generations, acquired a power of existing at a temperature to which no individual in its single life could become acclimatized. Here, then, we have the hereditary transmission of a faculty." Here we have an illustration of the permanent modification-education-of a species through experience. These processes of adjustment of the individual to environment constitute the most primitive type of education. This is true of all the lower animals as well as of man.

Effects of Experience.-There is a constant struggle on the part of each animal to master its surroundings and to put itself into harmonious relation with them as it understands them. 2 Animal Life and Intelligence, p. 147.

1 Animal Life, p. 23.

Each experience produces a modification of form, structure, or function, either physical or psychical, and the modification becomes a permanent possession, producing predispositions which tend to bias all future action. This means that the animal profits by experience. The process of learning by experience is education. Thus we see that all organisms receive education. It may not be according to our ideals, but there is education nevertheless. Not only man, but the lowly earthworm and the amoeba receive it. Not only does the individual gain an education, but through heredity the species is made a sharer and a contributor.

In the effort toward adjustment there is always an accentuation of some function or organ. For example, in the effort to capture a certain kind of food certain organs or sets of muscles are brought into new use, or, as in the case of man, when mere muscular power no longer suffices he uses his wits to effect a capture. In the former case the muscles that underwent extra exercise became specially developed; in the latter the mental powers performed the extra work and were developed accordingly. Thus specialization has taken place because it has been advantageous. In fact, we may say, to paraphrase Spencer's cosmological formula, that the whole course of life development, that is, education, has been a process of change from that which is relatively simple, homogeneous, undifferentiated, unspecialized, to that which is complex, heterogeneous, and specialized. This is as true of society as of animal structure.

"With the increase in degree of the division of labor among various parts of the body, there is an increase in definiteness and extent of differentiation of structure. Each part or organ of the body becomes more modified and better fitted to perform its own special function. A peculiar structural condition of any part of the body, or of the whole body of any animal, is not to be looked on as a freak of nature, or as a wonder or marvel. Such a structure has a significance which may be sought for. The unusual structural condition is associated with some special