of lack of training to observe more analytically, to think more conceptually, and to integrate and clarify his concepts through language he remains uneducated in the highest sense. The lowest and foundational stages were experienced, but development was arrested upon the low plane.

The foregoing considerations point toward the necessity of wise training in language, both native and foreign. No course of study can wisely omit the expression side of the educative process. The slogan "ideas before words" should be stated, "ideas and words." Language training should be an integral part of every course in geography, history, mathematics, or any other subject. Some foreign language should also be a required part of the course of study, because of the clarifying and enlarging effects upon the vernacular. The little child says incoherent things, often moves his whole body instead of his vocal organs, and if required to think exactly writhes and twists his body, hesitates, stammers, and does anything but say the exact thing. It is wholly unpsychological to expect that a child shall express his ideas in refined language. That result is only possible after long training in speech. Some persons never acquire the skill. Clearness and accuracy of expression mean clearness of ideas and exact co-ordination between ideas gained and means of expression, and between these and the muscular organs. Gradually, through careful training in language, properly correlated with the acquisition of ideas and activities, the learner acquires the refinements of language which indicate clearness and precision of thinking. In the early stages of education, while the child is gathering sense impressions and laying the foundations for relational thinking, we must be content with many crudities of speech. Just as the child sees only externals and those often in incorrect relations, we must expect that his speech will be disconnected, distorted, abbreviated, and wholly crude and unrefined. With patience in teaching him to observe and to weigh and consider his expression, we may expect his concepts to become full, clear, and accurate, and his expression to become adjusted and correlated with them. The two must grow to

gether, and it is futile to expect either to develop properly without the influence of the other.

The Statement of Concepts.-Although the importance of expression and language training have been emphasized, a caution needs to be suggested against the forcing of over-refined scientific statements before the concepts themselves have been acquired. It is easy to require children to memorize definitions and descriptions of things which they totally fail to comprehend. No definition should be committed to memory until its meaning is understood. A definition is a highly condensed statement of a concept. Since the expression of a concept is the final step in its acquisition, if memorized before understood it tends to close the mind against further analysis of the content. It therefore closes all avenues of acquisition for that particular idea. What is true of definitions is also true of rules.

It is a good thing to have summaries and outlines made-by the pupils themselves. If stereotyped summaries and outlines are learned they tend, like definitions, to close the mind against further search for content and meaning. An outline presented at the beginning of a subject or topic should never be memorized at that stage. It may be presented as a sort of guide-board to indicate the direction to be followed, but it is detrimental if considered as the full expression of the concepts themselves. The most valuable outlines and summaries are those made by the learners themselves. It is especially important that advanced students be required to organize the materials which they have acquired. Unless required to do so they, like children, tend to depend upon verbal memory, and frequently deceive themselves and their instructors by the expression of knowledge which is vague and meaningless to them. Even though the summaries made by the learner himself may be less finished than those given by the instructor and memorized in form by the learner, they are far more valuable than any that are borrowed ready-made. The summaries made independently by the learner indicate what he knows-his concepts-while those memorized from another show what the teacher knows and the pupil is able to echo.

Scientific Classification and Organization of Knowledge.-Important as it is to have knowledge classified in an orderly and scientific manner, a caution should be observed against overemphasizing this with beginners. The child mind is not scientific in its tendencies. It is absorptive, acquisitive, but not orderly. The interest and the attention of the child are flitting and undoubtedly this is necessary for normal growth. Too longcontinued attention in any direction causes over-tension and onesidedness of growth, because of the great plasticity at that age. It is a great mistake to over-emphasize system, classification, or refinement of expression in childhood. It is sure to kill interest, spontaneity, and self-activity and to produce arrest of development in some direction or other. We must remember that one of the very causes of instability is the struggle of instinctive tendencies to assert themselves. While we are causing the child to fix absolutely certain forms and formulas, we are probably stifling the expression of many desirable instincts and making him lop-sided in other directions. Any teacher who has tried to teach nature study to children from a book, logically and scientifically arranged from the adult point of view, has undoubtedly made a failure of it. Even in the grammar school and the high. school there is great danger of over-emphasizing the purely logical side of the studies. There is too much anxiety to have everything systematized and ticketed when the pupil leaves a course at any point. What will be the harm if pupils do not "finish" a given "course" in history, geography, or physics? Who can say what "the course" should be in any one of them? In different countries, in different localities every one of them may differ very materially in content. When a student studies history in college he certainly ought to organize the subject thoroughly, but before that time it is far more important that he gather facts and acquire a headway of interest.

We may go so far as to maintain that with beginners in any grade of school, and even in college, there is great danger of over-emphasis of classification and systematization of knowledge. To classify and organize there must be something to classify and

organize. The beginner in economics, chemistry, psychology, or the theory of education, for example, needs to go through a gathering period before devoting too much attention to systematization and organization, no less than does the child in the kindergarten. The genesis and growth of the concept demands it; and organization means relatively finished expression of concepts. Of course, the teacher should proceed in an orderly, systematic manner, but it is fatal to spontaneous growth in the learner if he becomes too conscious of the method by which he is acquiring. He should be absorbingly interested in the ideas or activities acquired and relatively oblivious of the method of acquisition. Even the teacher must be guided much more by the psychological unfolding of his pupils' minds than by logical categories.

CHAPTER XXIV

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION IN EDUCATION

Inference. The drawing of conclusions from given data is termed inference. The mind may move in either one of two directions in drawing inferences. It may begin with particular data, isolated cases, and attempt to determine the general law which governs all of the class and seek the necessary relationship which exists between the cases which seem to fall into a class; or it may take the general law and apply it to a particular case. In either instance the relationship existing among the ideas or the phenomena is what is sought. "The purpose of an inference is always the same; namely, to exhibit the relation and connection of particular facts or events in virtue of some universal law or principle. In deductive thinking, such a law is known, or provisionally assumed as known, and the problem is to show its application to the facts with which we are dealing. In induction, on the other hand, the starting-point must be the particular facts, and the task which thought has to perform is to discover the general law of their connection. Both deduction and induction play an important part in the work of building up knowledge." 1

Meaning of Induction. In every-day life we employ a great many words which denote concepts. Many of these classifications of objects, laws, rules, and relations we have not worked out for ourselves but have taken second-hand. Somebody, however, has had to work them out. Occasionally we derive independently from given data which we possess a new law, or rule, or classification. This process of arriving at generalizations 1 Creighton, An Introductory Logic, p. 173.