dynasty of the Guôr. It came to an end in 1878, together with the Ranquele tribe itself, during the campaign of extermination led by General Roca.

The reign of Painé partly coincides with that of Rosas, the Argentine tyrant. Therefore the history of the Ranqueles is interwoven with the history of Argentina, and the novel of Zeballos is to a certain extent based on historical facts.

The captivity among the Ranqueles during eight long years of a young Argentine forms the nucleus of Painé. We are told of the captive's bodily and mental sufferings; of the hopeless love of the poor, ugly Indian girl, Pulquinay, for the white "cristiano," not less strong than the passion of the latter for Painé's "favorita,” beautiful Panchita, herself a captive. At last, following Painé's sudden death, the lovers succeed in regaining their freedom. This romantic story is not only charmingly written, but the description of Zeballos' Indians is truthful and excellent. These are not fantastic stage Indians, but the genuine savages of the pampas, as seen by Zeballos, himself an "hijo del pais." The pictures which he draws of the endless sandy or grassy plains with their placid lagoons, surrounded by reeds and bushes, and of the glorious light at dawn and sunset are equally realistic.

Another valuable book by an author who knows what he is writing about, namely, James Rodway, is In Guiana Wilds; a Study of Two Women (London, 1899). Of the two heroines one is a so-called "boviander," of mixed Indian, Negro, and white blood, and the other a full-blood Macusi Indian. This rather amusing novel contains many data concerning the Macusi tribe in the interior of British Guiana. Although Rodway is in the main quite right in his descriptions, he obviously errs when he calls Makunaima the "Great Spirit." The Indians of Guiana in general do not recognize a personal, allruling God unless through missionary influence. Walter E. Roth's researches, for example, leave no doubt in this respect. Makunaima is nothing else but a "hero-god," one of the twins born from the Sun, his brother being Pia. The rôle of "kenaima" the avenger, which can take at will the shape of a boa constrictor or of a jaguar, and his paralyzing effect on the mind of the persecuted Indians, is truthfully depicted.

14

As the title indicates, the leitmotiv of Rodway's story is the psychology of the two women above mentioned. Both are equally pretty, but of a very different character. Their portraits are perfectly drawn. Chloe, the mongrel, with her slight veneer of civilization, does not come up to the moral standard of "pagan" Yariko, the

14 Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians (30th Ann. Report, Bur. Am. Ethnology, 1915).

devoted wife of Allan Gordon, the white adventurer who is the hero of Rodway's story.

From Dutch Guiana I know of only one story relating to our subject: Tokosi of het Indiaansche meisje; Historisch-romantisch tafereel. It was written by François Henri Rikken, a Catholic missionary, and published in 1901 at Paramaribo.

On account of the literary form in which they are rendered, a small collection of delightful folk-tales from the Andine regions in Peru and Bolivia must be mentioned. It is the Drömsagor från Anderna, written by Erland Nordenskiöld, and illustrated by Hjalmar Eldh (Stockholm, 1916). This valuable contribution to Aymara folk-lore completes the list of works here under review.

CONCLUSION.

To summarize: Regardless of whether the works briefly reviewed here have any literary merit, it appears that of the thirty-seven authors noted, not more than ten, i. e., a little over one-fourth part, can be classed as having real ethnologic and geographic value. These are for North America: Cushing, Bandelier, Miss Proctor, Mrs. Ryan, Remington, and Curtis, besides Bessels for the Eskimo; for South America: Zeballos, Rodway, and Nordenskiöld. Among these the most prominent place must be assigned to Cushing, Bandelier, and Bessels; the second to Miss Proctor, Remington and Curtis, Zeballos, and Nordenskiöld.

It is very difficult to form an opinion and to classify the other writers immediately following, such as Cooper, Simms, Longfellow, Mayne Reid, and Miller. Generally speaking, from a scientific point of view, their work has only a limited value, as they deal more in ideal descriptions of Indians in general than of Indians belonging to special tribes.

The same holds good for the works which are more or less historical or poetically descriptive, including those of Irving, Whittier, von Chamisso, Curtius, Wallace, Mair, Helen Hunt Jackson, and Möllhausen.

The works of all the other writers, including Brown, de Chateaubriand, Aimard, and Ferry, have either very little ethnologic value, or oftener still, are absolutely worthless.

The value of the very best works here mentioned is enhanced by the fact that the Indians and the conditions therein described belong for the most part to the irrevocable past. The Far West-nowadays a mere meaningless expression-with its romance and terrors, has long since ceased to exist. In South America, too, conditions are rapidly changing, and the time draws near in which the wilderness and the Indian warrior and hunter will be but a myth. The ap

proaching end of the "uncivilized” American natives finds a pathetic expression in the poem of Ella Higginson, The Vanishing Race:

15 These lines apply to a beautiful picture by Edward S. Curtis at the Alaska-YukonPacific Exposition, Portland, Oreg., in 1909.

LEOPARD-MEN IN THE NAGA HILLS.

By J. H. HUTTON.

In speaking of leopard-men I should like first of all to make it clear that I have taken the word leopard as the translation of the Naga words, because it is usually the leopard that is associated with Naga lycanthropists. The tiger, however, is also so associated, as well as one or perhaps more of the smaller cats. For all of these animals there is a generic term in most Naga languages, and when a Sema Naga, for instance, speaks of angshu he may mean a leopard or a tiger, between which he makes no clear distinction, or even a smaller animal such as a clouded leopard, or the golden cat. The same applies to the Angami Naga word tekhu. On the other hand, the Chang Nagas have distinct words, and speak of a tiger as saonyu, regarding the leopard, khönkhü, as little less inconsiderable than a civet cat, khü.

All Naga tribes seem to regard the ultimate ancestry of man and the tiger (or leopard) as very intimately associated. The Angamis relate that in the beginning the first spirit, the first tiger, and the first man, were three sons of one mother, but whereas the man and the spirit looked after their mother with the greatest tenderness, the tiger was always snarling about the house giving trouble. Moreover, he ate his food raw, while the man ate his cooked, and the spirit his smoke-dried. At last the mother got tired of family squabbles, so put up a mark in the jungle and told the man and the tiger to run to it, the one that touched it first being destined to live in villages and the other to live in the forest and jungle. By arrangement between the spirit and the man, the former shot an arrow at the mark, while the other two were racing, and the man cried out that he had touched it. The tiger arrived while it still trembled from the blow, and being deceived, went away angry to live in the jungle.

After this the man sent the cat to ask the tiger, when he killed a deer, to leave him a leg on the village wall, in virtue of their brotherhood. The cat got the message wrong and told the tiger to leave all

1 Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, January to June, 1920.

the deer he killed, which started hostility between the man and the tiger. This story is found in a more or less identical form among the Angami, Sema, Lhota, and Rengma Naga tribes, the Sema making the tiger search for the corpse of his dead mother to eat it.

Man and the tiger are, however, still regarded as brothers, and if an Angami kills a tiger he says, "The gods have killed a tiger in the jungle," and never "I have killed a tiger," while the priest of the village proclaims a day of abstention from work" on account of the death of an elder brother."

After killing a tiger or leopard the Angami wedges the mouth open with a stick and puts the head into running water, so that if the animal tries to tell the spirits the name of the man who killed him all that can be heard is an inarticulate gurgling in the water. The Sema puts a stone as well as a wedge into the mouth to prevent the tiger lying in wait for him after death and devouring him on their way to the abode of the dead, while he also becomes entitled to wear a collar of boar's tusks, the insignia of a successful warrior, as though he had killed a man.

In some tribes whole clans are associated with the tiger; thus among the Changs the whole Hagiyang Sept of the Chongpu clan is in some vague way intimately connected with tigers (not in this case with leopards) and is apparently of lycanthropic tendencies. At the same time it is taboo for all true Changs to touch tigers at all, far more to combine, as men of other tribes do, to hunt them. If a Chang meet a tiger in the jungle, he will warn it to get out of the way before throwing a spear or shooting at it. Should he kill one, he is under a taboo for thirty days, and treats the head in the same way as an Angami, putting it with its mouth wedged open under falling water.

The Chang will eat leopard flesh, but not, of course, that of the tiger. The Sema will eat neither, the Angami both-but it must be cooked outside the house.

When it comes to the practice of lycanthropy, we find that the Angami Nagas, though believing that the practice exists and can be acquired, do not indulge in it themselves. Like other tribes, they believe in a village far to the east peopled solely by lycanthropists, a belief which is, perhaps, based on the claims of some clan like the Chongpu-Hagiyang of the Changs, in which all members of the community are believed to possess this faculty of taking tiger or other forms in a greater or less degree. But the Angami also believe in the existence of a spring, by some said to be of blood or of reddishcolored water, from which whoso drinks becomes a lycanthropist. They believe that the people of the neighborhood know and shun this spring, but that the danger to strangers is great. Moreover,