ARTICLE VI.

HISTORY IN ALPHABETS.

BY REV. JOHN C. C. CLARKE.

THE decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, about fifty years since, opened the way for a new science. Since then, discoveries of ancient monuments and relics in many lands have furnished rich materials for the illustration of history. The letters of the handwriting of a large part of the world in all ages lie before us. Coming to us out of a buried past, like the footprints of birds in the rocks, they tell us more than these; for without a Darwin they demonstrate their genealogy, and picture their own history. Laying down the relics in their proper places on the map of the world, our eyes discover a new illustration of the relations of races, the track of commerce, the spread of religions, and the course of civilization. We discover in some nations an unsuspected antiquity of letters, while we abandon some venerable traditions, and recall honors that have been accorded to some peoples.

Before entering into a detailed historical statement, we present a table of the genealogy of the alphabet, so far as ascertained facts can be arranged on a single page. In this table the Hamitic, Turanian, mixed, and uncertain peoples are printed in small capitals. The Indo-European or Japhetic races are in Roman letters. The Shemitic races are in Italics. The figures at the right give an approximation in centuries to the dates of the origin of the various styles of letters. Only two varieties are named which the writer has not carefully examined and tabulated beside their kindred, and none of known importance are omitted, although the table might be enlarged with mere names.

A Hieroglyphic Alphabet.-At a very early date, in Egypt, pictures of objects were used to represent the initial sounds of their names. This writing is neither rude nor imperfect, but, to persons familiar with the language, is elegant, precise, and legible, as no alphabet of arbitrary marks could be without long study. If a great variety of signs were used, rapidity of reading might be restricted. There was, therefore, a strong reason for reducing the number of symbols in familiar use. Such a limitation argues a general diffusion of literary culture of a fixed character. In fact, the number of picture letters in common use was at a very early date reduced to the limits of a true alphabet. This alphabet, with a few variations, is now generally recognized, and has been often published. It was adequate to the representation of all the sounds of the Egyptian, Shemitic, and Greek languages. There is no longer room for a doubt of the real inventors of the alphabet. It can scarcely be said to have been invented; for it was almost as natural as speech to a people who preserved primeval antediluvian culture, and used a language composed in large part of monosyllables.

Hieratic. From full pictures the transition was easy to abridged forms and outlines. Thus originated a style which has been named "Hieratic," as if it belonged only to the priests. In the opinion of some scholars it was used as early as the fourth dynasty. Its use indicates progress, possibly towards priestcraft, but certainly towards schools and literature. This is also shown in the fact that the hieratic writing is always read from right to left; but the hieroglyphs were read in the direction opposed to their facing, which could be either to right or left.

Demotic.-About B.C. 625, a new style was adopted in Egypt, consisting, in part, of new abridgments of the hieratic letters, in part of an approximation to Canaanite letters, and in part of elements not yet easily traced. It is called the Demotic or Enchorial style. It belonged to the period of Egyptian decay and innovations, when Psammetichus marched an army to the further borders of Syria, and filled Egypt with mercenaries from Europe and Asia Minor.

A few of the Demotic letters remain in the Coptic alphabet, and a trace of them appears in the Sinaitic; but they mostly passed out of use in the presence of the letters of Greece and Rome. Like the Hieratic, they were always written from right to left.

Egyptian Source of all Alphabets.-The genius of the world seems to have been unequal to the production of another alphabet. Indeed, humbling as the confession is, we must admit that human invention has scarcely ever deliberately and suddenly even modified the forms of letters. The endless repetition of the same forms of letters takes its place as a phenomenon alongside the iteration of words. Men have depended for literature and history on the one alphabet, rarely violently modifying it even to meet pressing wants; but usually varying it only as compelled by diversity of writing materials, or gradually following the leadings of convenience and taste.

The only exceptions to the above statements which need be noticed, are in the case of the Babylonian Cuneiform, and the Chinese writings, both of which are syllabic, and not alphabetic; also modern stenography, and barbarisms like the Cherokee syllables and Mormon letters.

Common Shemitic or Canaanite.-From Egyptian evidences it is believed that one common alphabet was in use throughout Western Syria as early as the time of the shepherd kings, or before Abraham. No authenticated specimen of this from the first thousand years of its use is known, and it is not probable that its earliest forms are preserved.

The well-known, though recently found, Moabite stone of about 900 B.C., is probably the oldest specimen, but may not preserve the primitive letters so well as more recent relics from other localities. A few inscriptions on stones from Sidon and the Phenician colonies may be five or six centuries older than the Christian era. A few relics from Assyria are of century VIII. B.C. A few gems and seals may be Hebrew, but of uncertain date. Of specimens dating a little before the Christian era there are now many.

Nearly all the Canaanite letters are derivable from the more common Egyptian hieroglyphs. They are of a hieratic style, but differ from the Egyptian hieratic, being more carefully formed. In the absence of the connecting links we conclude that they were taken from Egypt after the hieratic style was introduced, and that a part of them are close imitations of hieroglyphs, and a part are hieratic. Most of them are from the most common hieroglyphs.

The Canaanites were so far from inventing letters, or even consciously improving them, that they forgot their sources and primitive forms. They even conceived that the letters faced as they were read, towards the left; and they gave them new names suited to that blundering conception. The Shemitic names of the letters only mislead. The facing of some of their letters to the right, e.g. their L, TS, and T, was a puzzle to the Canaanites, but is instantly explained by a glance at the Hieratic Egyptian forms. We desicate Phenician honor in the spread of letters to a trifle. The Canaanite alphabet was probably spread over Syria, Arabia, Asia Minor, and North Africa, by caravan commerce, before Sidonian sea traffic began, or Tyre was founded.

Asia Minor.-There are reasons for believing that the people of Asia Minor received letters from Northern Syria more than eight, and, perhaps, fifteen centuries, before the Christian era. Carian inscriptions of century VII. B.C., exist in Egypt; and Phrygian and Lycian inscriptions are known which seem to be at least as ancient as B.Cc. 500, and may have several more centuries of age. The letters are those of Syria, but of a stiffer style. The Egyptian is the style of the pencil, the Canaanite of the pen, the Phrygian of the knife or chisel.

Some inscriptions in Asia Minor face and read to the left. Those that read to the right generally reverse the letters. The alphabet of Phrygia and Lycia contains nearly all the letters of the Greek and Italian alphabets, and is a connecting link between them. The Carian contains a larger number, but the language and race are unknown. The Phrygians