In the Elburz range, directly south of the southern extremity of the sea, is the volcanic cone of Demavend, the snowy summit of which is 14,800 feet above the sea-level. After the southeastern angle of the sea is passed the range broadens out into a mountainous region, or rather becomes four or five distinct ranges of moderate elevation, running mostly parallel to one another, with fertile valleys intervening. Further towards the east these ranges contract, and push on still eastward till they meet the Hindoo Koosh. The Great Salt Desert, already spoken of as lying south of this region, is about 400 miles long by 250 broad, and comprises something like 100,000 square miles. North of these ranges of mountains is the great desert of Khiva or Kharesm. This stretches northward 800 miles to the foot of the Moughojar hills, and eastward an equal distance to the neighborhood of Balkh.1 This region of mountains and valleys lying thus between these two frightful deserts, is about 200 miles from north to south, and 320 from east to west, comprising between 60,000 and 70,000 square miles. But if from this district, Hyrcania, which lay to the west and northwest of Parthia Proper, and bordered upon the Caspian, be cut off, the latter would be reduced to about 33,000 square miles. Besides the vast southern exposure, already spoken of, which has its own watercourses, there is a northwestern exposure with its streams, and towards the east the streams flow slightly in that direction also. The vast desert of Khiva, lying to the north of Parthia, has neither animal life nor vegetation. "It exhibits the image of death, or rather of the desolation left behind by a great convulsion of nature." Humboldt thought this the bed of a sea which once flowed between Europe and Asia, joining the Arctic Ocean with the Euxine. It is sandy and salt, and swallows up except in one or two instances, the rivers which attempt to make their way through it. "The Murg-ab, the Heri Rud, the river of Meshed, and various minor streams, are lost in the sands." This desert "separates more effectually than a water-barrier between the Russian steppes and the country of Khorasan, and lies like a broad, dry moat outside the rampart of the Elburz range." The valleys, between the ranges of mountains just described, are extremely rich and fertile, and in some sections the mountain slopes are well wooded. The whole region is well watered; there are numerous small streams, and some rivers of considerable size. And on the slopes and plain country, which meet the desert on either side, a system of irrigation by canals and underground watercourses kept the soil, in former times, in a state of surprising fertility. This region still produces the pine, ash, poplar, willow; walnut, sycamore, mulberry, apricot, vine," and numerous other fruit trees."" In the western part "the slopes are covered with forests of elms, cedars, chesnuts, beeches, and cypress-trees." The rich alluvial belt along the 1 Rawlinson, Herodotus, i. 437. 2 Ibid. Note, quoted from Mouravieff. 3 Parthia, p. 7. southern shores of the Caspian (300 miles long by five to thirty in width) abounded in tropical and other fruits, and this particular district is spoken of as "one continuous garden." But in Parthia itself, the soil was suitable for wheat, barley, and cotton. Game abounded in the mountains, and fish in the streams. "Among the mineral treasures of the region may be enumerated copper, lead, iron, salt, and one of the most exquisite of gems, the turquoise." As to the climate, the winters are not severe, although cold weather continues from October to March, with considerable snow; nor is the heat intense in summer. The descriptions already given have been confined chiefly to Parthia Proper. Yet we can hardly form any correct estimate of such a limited section of country without including the countries which immediately surrounded it. These were: Chorasmia, Margiana, Aria, Sarangia, Sagartia, and Hyrcania. Chorasmia upon the north, was a poor country, and never could have maintained more than a sparse and scanty population. Margiana lay northeast upon the Murg-ab, and by skilful irrigation this small tract was made one of the most fertile of all known regions. This district was especially famous for its vines, of the clusters of which Strabo has given marvellous accounts. South of Margiana, and touching Parthia upon the east, was Aria, a district resembling Parthia in its general features. To the southeast and south of Parthia lay Sarangia and Sagartia, both rather unproductive countries. To the west and northwest lay Hyrcania, with which Parthia was geographically more closely connected. This district, bordering upon the eastern shores of the Caspian sea, was the richest of all the provinces by which Parthia was surrounded. 66 Here, on the slopes of the hills, grow the oak, the beech, the elm, the alder, the wild cherry; here luxuriant vines spring from the soil on every side, raising themselves aloft by the aid of their stronger sisters, and hanging in wild festoons from tree to tree; beneath their shade the ground is covered with flowers cf various kinds; primroses, violets, lilies, hyacinths, and others of unknown species; while in the flat land at the bottom of the valleys, are meadows of the softest and the tenderest grass, capable of affording to numerous flocks and herds an excellent and unfailing pasture. Abundant game finds shelter in the forests, while towards the mouths of the rivers, where the ground is for the most part marshy, large herds of wild boars are frequent-a single herd sometimes containing hundreds. Altogether Hyrcania was a most productive and desirable country, capable of sustaining a dense population, and well deserving Strabo's description of it as "highly favored of heaven." The geographical position of Parthia was remarkable. It was isolated, almost cut off, from the rest of the world on the north and south, but with outlets to the east and the west, the latter, a narrow one through the "Caspian Gates." It had sufficient and unusual resources within itself. It was a fit training place for a people that was destined, when it should 2 Parthia, p. 8. 3 Parthia, pp. 12, 13. 1 Rawlinson, Herodotus, i. 437. VOL. XXXI. No. 122. 47 reach its maturity, not only to become the leading nation of Western Asia-ruling for five centuries from the Indus to the Euphrates, - but to make Rome tremble even in the days of her strength. 3. The People a Scythic Race. We understand their proper home to have been, in general, the southern flank of the Elburz range,· the inside of the half-moon already described. They are placed here by Herodotus and the historians of Alexander, also by Strabo and Pliny. They did not gain this country by conquest. They were a Scythic (or, as sometimes called, Turanian) race, and this region is their original home, so far as it can be located by history. Yet, according to the geography of the Zendavesta, they were surrounded by Arian settlements or states. They were conquered by the Arian race and held in subjection for five centuries, but, at length, by an uprising of the whole people, they gained their independence, which they maintained for nearly five centuries more, or from B.C. 256 to A.D. 226. Their Scythic character is shown: 1. by the testimony of ancient writers; 2. by their manners and customs; and 3. by the character of their language. 4. The Parthian Empire. We have seen that the original home of the Parthian people was a small region, southeast of the Caspian Sea, comprising between thirty and forty thousand square miles. In B.C. 256, by an uprising of the whole people, the nation became independent of the Seleucidae, or Syrian kings, who then ruled that part of the world. Some idea of the vigor of the Parthians may be gained by comparing their limited territory and numbers with the whole of the Syrian kingdom of which their country was a part. The Syrian kingdom extended from the Mediterranean to the Indus, comprising not less than 1,200,000 square miles, and it had besides abundant wealth and resources. Three centuries previous to B.C. 256, this country had been conquered by Cyrus the elder. In B.C. 330 it was taken from the Persians by Alexander the Great. From B.C. 312 to B.C. 256, it was subject to the Seleucidae or Syrian kings. From B.C. 256 to A.D. 226-four hundred and eighty-two years—it was an independent empire. From A.D. 226 to A.D. 652 it was subject to the New Persian Monarchy, or kingdom of the Sassanidae. The empire reached its greatest limits under the reign of Mithridates I. (Arsaces VI. B.C. 174–136), who not only made extensive conquests, but organized the government on a wise and permanent basis. It comprised then an area of about 450,000 square miles, "which is somewhat less than that of modern Persia,” but, “unlike the modern Persia, the territory consisted almost entirely of productive regions." West of the Euphrates these people seem never to have made any permanent conquests. The 2 Parthia, p. 33. * Parthia, 79 et sq. 1 Parthia, p. 22. Rawlinson, Ancient History, p. 624. leader, under whom their independence was achieved, was named Arsaces. His successor assumed the same name, and became Arsaces II.; and this practice became a custom which continued till the close of the empire. The last king was Arsaces XXX. It is easy to see how this would have made utter confusion in Parthian history if the Greek and Roman writers had not had the good sense to preserve the real human name with the Arsaces number. An annoying parallel to this exists in England. In its four hundred and eighty-two years, the empire had thirty kings. Some enjoyed long and prosperous reigns. For instance, the sixth Arsaces reigned thirtyeight years; the ninth, thirty-seven years; the nineteenth, thirty years; and the twenty-seventh (Vologeses III.), forty-three years. Artabanus III. (Arsaces XXX.) under whom the empire came to an end, was among the most able of the later Parthian monarchs; but his Persian antagonist (Artaxerxes) was a leader possessing true military genius, and the Parthian empire, without any marked symptoms of decay, submitted to him as its conqueror. The empire had been broken, to some extent, by internal dissensions, and the character of the soldiery had gradually declined. But the race was by no means exhausted; for this same Artabanus, in the early part of his reign (A.D. 217) had defeated Macrinus and his legions in a three days' battle at Nisibis. This battle is described as "the fiercest and bestcontested which was ever fought between the rival powers" of Parthia and Rome. Artabanus accepted from the Romans a pecuniary compensation for his wrongs. Macrinus had to pay a sum exceeding a million and a half English pounds. Rome thus concluded her transactions with Parthia, after nearly three centuries of struggle, by ignominiously purchasing a peace." The disgrace was concealed from the Roman people by the fiction that the payment was by way of presents to the Parthian monarch and his lords. 66 5. The Government and Civil Affairs. Their civil institutions possessed great simplicity. There was a Senate, comprising both the spiritual and the temporal chiefs of the nation - the sophi, or "wise men," and the magi, or "priests." Then there was a body consisting of the full-grown males of the Royal house. These two bodies were the king's permanent councillors. Together they constituted the megistanes, i.e., the "nobles," or "great men." The monarch must be elected from the house of the Arsacidae. Although the concurrent vote of both bodies just mentioned was necessary to the appointment of a new king, yet when once elected his power seems to have been nearly despotic. When elected the diadem was placed upon the monarch's head by the "Surena," or commander-in-chief, of the Parthian armies. The "magi" became, towards the close of the empire, very numerous and powerful. They enjoyed unusual privileges, and were feared and venerated by all 1 Parthia, p. 358. 2 Ibid p. 360. classes of the people; and further, they served as a check upon the arbitrary power of the monarchs. Subject countries were allowed to retain their own kings and systems of government, so long as they remained loyal to Parthia; and, by way of distinction, the Parthian monarchs gave themselves the title of "king of kings," which is very frequent upon their coins. Favors were granted to the Jewish colonies, and, especially, to the Greek towns in the empire. The latter enjoyed such privileges that in some cases they became independent communities, over which the Parthian kings exercised little or no control. As to the Parthian Court, the accounts are not very clear. It was a Circuit Court, migrating at different seasons of the year to different cities of the empire. The choice of cities seems to have been determined, to some extent, by climate. The court had a spring, a summer, and a winter residence; and tradition has preserved accounts of the splendor of the court and of the pomp and grandeur of the Parthian monarchs, which reports must be greatly reduced before they can be believed. 6. Their Military System. The Parthians were essentially a warlike people. Their army consisted chiefly of mounted warriors. They had foot soldiers, but this arm of the service was of small account. Native Parthian troops formed the main reliance of the army, but these were aided by contingent foreign forces. In their "heavy horse" the men were protected by coats of mail, and the horses by a defence of scale armor. In the "light horse" neither men nor horses had armor, nor did the men carry spears. They were carefully trained to the management of the horse and the bow. "The archer delivered his arrows with as much precision and force in retreat as in advance, and was almost more feared when he retired than when he charged his foe"; a fact to which the Roman writers often called attention. Every effort was made to improve the cavalry, for upon its efficiency depended the issue of battle. Their tactics were simple: "To surround their foe, to involve him in difficulties, to cut off his supplies and his stragglers, and ultimately to bring him into a position where he might be overwhelmed by missiles, was the aim of all Parthian commanders of any military capacity." In battle the attack of the heavy cavalry was furious. "The mailed horsemen charged at speed, and often drove their spears through the bodies of two enemies at a blow." The light horse was always in motion in presence of an enemy; but the heavy cavalry were so trained as to stand "firm as an iron wall against the charges that were made upon them." The Parthians were bad hands at sieges, and gen 1 Parthia, p. 88. 2 Parthia, p. 94. For evidence of the final decline of the power of the "magi," see pp. 365 and 400. * Parthia, pp. 404-410. 4 * Parthia, pp. 160, 161. |