cooling it by night. The snow was even carried to Tyre, Sidon, and Damascus as a luxury, and laborers sweltering in the hot harvest fields used it to cool the water which they drank.2 No doubt Herod Antipas at his feasts in Tiberias enjoyed also from this very source the modern luxury of ice-water! The warm springs of this province are also to be noticed at Biram, Gadara, and Tiberias, of which those at the latter place were most renowned. "These three springs" the Rabbis say, "remained after the deluge." There is a large cluster of these springs near Tiberias. Some of them are hot, and are called by the Rabbis "the boiling waters."4 The supply of water in the largest is sufficient to turn the wheels of mills.5 Pliny speaks of the "healthfulness" of these springs, and so does Josephus. These springs were the "watering places" of that age and country, the delightful resort of people of means, and were visited also with great benefit by the feeble or sick of the land, on account of the healing properties of the waters. People were attracted hither from Jerusalem and all other parts of the land, and no doubt the city of Tiberias was increased greatly both in size and importance by this means. In the glens of the north, Porter speaks of "tiny streams murmuring among rocks."9 If we think of the numberless brooks and mountain torrents, the springs, besides the warm ones already mentioned, the reservoirs, the aqueducts and watercourses,10 the fountains, the cisterns, and the wells, we have a land in which there 1 Tacitus's History, 5. 6; Ritter, 2. 18; see p. 181.

2 Prov. xxv. 13; Robinson, 2. 440; Ritter, 2. 188.

8 Neubauer, 34, 35. Perhaps Biram should be put down by the Dead Sea, Neubauer, 36, 37; Graetz, 3. 392; Arnaud, 258; Stanley, S. and P. 366; Ritter, 2. 246 sq.

Neubauer, as above.

Ritter, 2. 246, from Burckhardt. On the temperature of these springs, see Ritter, 2. 247, 248.

6 Hist. Nat. 5. 15.

L. 16. On the Warm Springs, see chapter in Lightfoot, 1. 150, 151.

8 Neubauer, 212.

* Bashan, 262.

10 Remains of watercourses or aqueducts about the plain of Gennesareth,

Our Work in Palestine, 207; Recovery of Jerusalem, 272.

was no lack of water, and one infinitely blessed in this respect above Judea.1

VII. THE PLAIN OF GENNESARETH.

Some special notice ought to be taken of the plain of Gennesareth, perhaps in fertility and beauty the gem of the East, as it certainly was the gem of Palestine.2 We have already quoted Josephus's glowing description of it.3 It must not be thought of as of great extent. Two miles and a half long by one broad is all that is allowed to it by the latest explorers. Here nature had lavished her tropical profusion and glory.5 Trees retained their foliage throughout the whole year, and during ten months of the year grapes and figs ripened. Here, in this rank soil, grew the finest wheat of the land. Its superior and delicious fruits were not found at Jerusalem at the feasts, lest, as we have seen, some persons might attend them for the sake of enjoying these fruits alone. Its climate was a "harmonious mingling of the seasons," s," 8 and the Rabbis looked upon this plain as an earthly paradise. And to make the name "Genesareth"

1 Arnaud, chap. ii., "Eaux de la Palestine," 233–268.

NOTE 1. Capt. Wilson, Recovery of Jerusalem, 264, gives the size of the Sea of Galilee as twelve and one-fourth miles long, by six and three-fourths 'greatest width."

NOTE 2. For details in regard to these Warm Springs at Tiberias, temperature, etc., see Recovery of Jerusalem, 282.

2 Keim, 1. 598.

3 Wars, 3. 10. 8.

Capt. Wilson, in "Recovery of Jerusalem," 264. Josephus makes it thirty stadia long by twenty broad, Wars, 3. 10. 8; Porter, Hand-book, "three miles long by one mile broad;" Stanley, S. and P. 366, "five miles wide by six or seven long."

Ritter, 2. 241. "The complete glory of southern clime," Hausrath, 1. 4. 6 Graetz, 3. 392.

7 Neubauer, 45, and references.

Ritter, 2. 240, a phrase borrowed from Hippocrates.

Hausrath, 1.4; Graetz, 3. 392; Arnaud, 241. "The soil consists of a black loam formed by the mingling of decomposed basalt with the alluvium of the Lake," Ritter, 2. 268. "The beach is pearly white with myriads of minute shells," Our Work in Palestine, 184. Keim 1. 311, calls this the "unparalleled garden of God." The name "Gennesareth" has been referred to,

suggestive of the richness of the soil, or of the sweetness of its fruits, several fanciful interpretations were adopted.

VIII. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS AND MANUFACTURES. 1. Oil.

Of the productions of this province, fish, wine, wheat, and oil occupy a foremost place. On account of the fine quality and great abundance of the latter, as well as because it was an important article of commerce with other nations, this product deserves special notice. The dying lawgiver said of Asher: "He shall dip his foot in oil." In allusion to this phrase the Rabbis said: "In Asher oil flows like a river."2 "It is easier," they said, "to raise a legion (i.e. a forest) of olive-trees in Galilee, than to raise one child in Judea." 3 Gischala was renowned for the abundance of its oil. Once, when oil was wanted at Laodicea, men were sent to Jerusalem and to Tyre to purchase; but the quantity desired could be found only in Gischala in Galilee. While Asher produced the most oil, Tekoa produced the best. Tekoa was called the alpha for oil, while Gischala occupied the third place in the country in regard to the quantity and quality of oil produced. Both Syrians and Phoenicians drew their supplies from this province, and the traffic in this commodity alone proved a source of wealth to the Galileans.6 Attention is called to a certain period when oil was ten times as dear at Cesarea as at Gischala. Josephus shows

Others refer it to gargarden and riches, last explanation is very See Keim, 1. 598 note,

a harp, "its fruit is sweet as the sound of a harp." den, and prince, "garden of princes." Others to "a garden rich in fertility and productions." "This forced," Neubauer, 215; Stanley, S. and P. 366 note. where is given Titus's very high estimation of this lake and region. Attention need hardly be called to the infinite contrast between this region in Christ's time and now; but see Ritter, 2. 253. See Hausrath, 1. 350, 351.

1 Deut. xxxiii. 24.

3 Neubauer, 180.

2 Neubauer, 180, and refs. to authorities.

* Neubauer, 230, and refs. to authorities.

'Neubauer, 129, and refs.; 131, and refs.

• Wars, 2. 21. 2; Keim, 1. 312; Graetz, 3. 392.

'L. 13; Traill's Joseph. 2. p. cxxxviii; Wars, 2. 21. 2 (does Josephus mean Cesarea Philippi ?).

that both demand and supply were great, the selling price high, and the revenue large. Of the business at Gischala, John, the rival of Josephus, once had a monopoly. In the villages and towns of Upper Galilee great quantities of oil were stored. It was so abundant in Jotapata that it was used freely as a means of defence when that place was besieged. Large quantities of it were heated and poured. down on all sides upon the Romans, which soon scattered their ranks. Their troops, scalded, rolled headlong from the ramparts in excruciating agony.3 By looking back to the days of Solomon, we may get a hint as to the productiveness of this country in the amount of agricultural products which this king furnished to Hiram as a yearly tribute. This fact shows what Solomon's country was rich in, and what Hiram needed. Besides immense quantities of wine, wheat, and barley, about two hundred thousand gallons of the best oil were sent to Hiram every year. In Christ's time oil was a common article in the treatment of the sick. Herod the Great, in his last sickness, was almost killed by being plunged into a vessel of oil.5

1 Wars, 2. 21. 2.

2 Life, 13.

3 Wars, 3. 7. 28, where further particulars are given, showing that this was a terrible, as well as effective, means of defence.

41 Kings v. 11 [Heb. vs. 25]; perhaps 2 Chron. ii. 10 [Heb vs. 9] should be taken as the correct statement. See Thenius's Comment.; Ewald's Hist. Israel,

3. 292.

Wars, 1. 33. 5; Mark vi. 13, which applies to Galilee; see Luke x. 34; Herod, Ant. 17. 6. 5.

NOTE 1.—In the affair of John's monopolizing the oil trade of Gischala which Josephus condemns, Graetz takes decidedly the part of the former against the latter. Indeed Graetz is throughout a Litter opponent of Josephus; see Graetz 3. 397. On p. 392, Graetz says that the Galileans sold to the Phoenicians and Syrians their surplus oil, and received therefrom a large revenue. On p. 394 he says that the Galileans did not sell their surplus oil to their heathen neighbors, because it was forbidden to transport the means of life-oil and wine-out of the Jewish country.

NOTE 2. The theory has been put forth by some and stoutly maintained that Christ was an Essene. But Christ commended the use of oil in sickness, in anointing the body, and in every way according to the customs of the time; while the Essenes renounced the use of oil altogether. "They consider oil defiling; and should any one accidentally come into contact with it, he wipes his

2. Certain Places noted for Particular Productions or Manufactured Articles.

Our limits do not allow us to speak of the grain production and other industries of this province in detail. We can only pass hastily in review the different places, and speak of the manufactured articles or agricultural and other productions for which each was celebrated. If the evidence on these points which we derive from the Talmud does not all refer to the time of Christ, or the first century (which cannot easily be decided), it shows, at least, that in contrast with Judea, Galilee had infinitely the advantage in regard to agricultural products and industries of all kinds. The figs and grapes and other fruits of the plain of Gennesareth had a national reputation for their superior quality.1 The very name Gischala (gush chaleb, "fat soil") suggested the richness of that region.2 The people living there were mostly farmers. The region about Safed was noted for its fertility, as was also that about Banias.5 A portion of this northern district is still celebrated for its excellent wheat. Notice is taken of the fact that in this province but few small cattle were raised (i.e. sheep and goats), because the rich land could be put to a more profitable use. These, however, were raised in abundance in the waste regions of Judea and Syria. The heavy soil of the plain of Jezreel produced superior grain, which was fully equalled by that which grew in the fertile fields of Gennesareth.8 The wheat of Chorazin and Capernaum was widely celebrated. Bethshean, on account of its fertility, was called the gate of Paradise.10 The Rabbis boast of the olives of this place, and also of the body," Wars, 2. 8. 3. Such a fact goes far towards settling the question that Christ was not an Essene.

10 Gennesareth was Paradise itself. Smith's Bible Dict., 2. 1180, col. 1. Art. "Issachar"; Lightfoot, 1. 127; Neubauer, 175.