character of this people, numbering perhaps three million, made up as it was of many peculiar original or internal elements, and wrought upon by so many peculiar influences that were foreign or external to it. On the west were the Phoenicians, on the north the Syrians, on the south the Samaritans, and in some of the principal cities of the province were strongly-marked features of Greco-Roman civilization. Yet this remark in regard to the existence here of Greco-Roman civilization must not be made to mean too much; for when all the evidence on this point is collected, the real extent of such foreign civilization is seen to have been very limited. The people preserved, as a body, their thoroughly Jewish character, in spite of any foreign influences tending to the contrary.2 It is as a Jewish people that the Galileans are to be judged. The fact just mentioned is very significant. Those elements of national character by which a people is preserved from blending with those with whom it comes in contact form an interesting topic for study. Perhaps the tenacity with which the Jew held to his religious ideas might tend to exclusiveness and bigotry. Yet while he would not allow interference in the affairs of his religion, he prided himself upon his noble treatment of strangers; and, as he allowed foreigners to settle upon Jewish soil, so

1 Gadara and Hippos are spoken of as Greek cities. Wars, 2. 6. 3; Ant. 17. 11. 4. The Syrians in Scythopolis seem to have been a majority, Life, 6. The "Strangers" in Tarichaca were not necessarily foreigners, but new comers in distinction from old settlers, Wars, 3. 10. 4, 10; Life, 29. The Greeks in Tiberias were a small fraction of the whole population, Life, 12; compare Life, 65. In Judea also, Gaza was a Greek city, Wars, 2. 6. 3; Ant. 17. 11. 4; and in Cesarea both Syrians and Greeks were numerous, Life, 11; Wars, 2. 13. 7; Ant. 20. 8. 7, 9; Wars, 2. 14. 4; 3. 9. 1. On Syrian and Phoenician cities, see Ant. 13. 15. 4; Syrians hated the Jews, Wars, 1. 4. 3. 2 Wars, 3. 3. 2. Greek influence in Palestine in Christ's time can be reduced, we think, to a very small amount. The decided contempt of the Jews, as a nation, for all foreign languages, learning, science, history, etc., would tend to preserve their Jewish character, their religion and peculiar customs intact. That they preserved their national character free from foreign influences to a far greater degree than many are disposed to admit is clearly shown by Gfrörer, 1. 114-118, and also p. 119. For the efforts of the Jews in the first century after Christ to maintain among themselves a thorough knowledge of the Biblical Hebrew, see Fürst, Kultur- und Literatur-geschichte der Juden in Asien. 1. 26, 27.

he claimed the corresponding right, namely, to be allowed to go and settle wherever men were. In Christ's time one might have spoken with truth of the omnipresent Jew. The Jews had made themselves homes in every country, from the Tiber to the Euphrates, from the pines of the Caucassus to the spice-groves of happy Arabia."1 A mere catalogue of the cities where they had settled at that time-in the far East, in Egypt, in Syria, in Greece and her islandsis astonishing. With but few exceptions, they seem to have been everywhere a wealthy, and, in general, an influential, class. The decrees issued, from time to time, by the Roman senate favoring or honoring the Jews in the different cities of the empire were very numerous, and throw much light upon their numbers, character, prosperity, and their civil and social relations and standing. If one should say that the Jews were bigoted in regard to religion, he should remember, at the same time, that, in regard to social, commercial, and political relations none were more cosmopolitan in either sentiment or practice than they. And if the Jewish people deserve any credit for this cosmopolitan spirit, perhaps the praise should be given to the Galileans, who, on account of their peculiar surroundings, must have led the way in this friendly intercourse with other nations. It will be important to remember this point when we come to consider the religious character of this people.

2. Chiefly an Agricultural People.

Further, it is chiefly as an agricultural people that we must regard them. There was, indeed, in that period, a vast amount of public building going on (under Herod, Antipas, and Philip), which would require and occupy many men; secondly, we must reckon the lake commerce, which was considerable; thirdly, the fisheries (important; as we

1 Merivale, 3. 287.

2 Merivale, 3. 287; Milman, 2. 20; Lutterbeck, 1. 128; Wars, 7.3.3; Conybeare and Howson, St. Paul, 1. 16 et seq.

3 Ant. 14. chapters 8, 10, and 12; 16. 2. 3; 16. 6. 2; 19. 5. 3; 19.6.3; wealth and influence, Ant. 14. 7. 2.

have seen); fourthly, the carrying trade- transporting the productions of the country to foreign markets, and also merchandise between Egypt and Damascus. Add to these, dyeing, weaving, stone-cutting, ship-building, pottery manufacture, and a few other industries; but when we have made a sufficient deduction for all these methods of employment, we shall have left still the bulk of the population, whose business was agriculture.2

Then the wealth and prosperity of this province, together with the good order, both civil and social, which prevailed there, would seem to indicate industry, enterprise, and intelligence on the part of the people.

3. Eminent for Patriotism and Courage.

Among the prominent virtues of the Galileans we mention here their patriotism. If the influence of surrounding nations had been so marked upon their character as is sometimes claimed,3 it would have resulted in weakening the ties which bound them to their country and national institutions and ideas; but from the time of Herod's first connection with this province in B.c. 47, to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, the Galileans were among the noblest patriots of which the nation could boast. Had this patriotism been wanting to them, even in the least degree, the fact would have been developed greatly to their prejudice in the Jewish war; but in that struggle the Galileans made a noble record. Their intense devotion to "the national idea" has been spoken of as "hot-blooded." Also their loyalty and devotion to their rulers, and their bravery, for which they were justly celebrated, may properly be considered in connection with

1 Whatever landed at Ptolemais for Damascus, and whatever came from Egypt bound for Damascus or the far East, and whatever came from the far East and Damascus, bound for Egypt or Rome, would all pass through Galilee, -an important fact.

2 Keim, 1. 312; Wars, 3. 3. 2.

* Graetz, 3. 395, exaggerates beyond all reason the influence of surrounding people upon the character of the Galileans.

the topic just mentioned. To the young governor, Herod, they were warmly attached. When he was appointed king this province declared almost unanimously in his favor.1 Then, the fact that Antipas held the government forty-three years without special complaint from his subjects shows a people well-disposed towards a ruler who, whatever may be said of his morals was, as a ruler, liberal, energetic, and capable in every sense. Then, still later, the devotion of the Galileans to Josephus was made by him a matter of special praise. Their interest in him, and their anxiety for his welfare, outweighed all considerations of peril, or loss of property, to themselves. The instances illustrating this. statement are numerous.2 In praising their bravery, Josephus says that "cowardice was never a characteristic of the Galileans." Aristobulus II. and Herod the Great found here some of their most valiant soldiers; and the deeds of the patriot army under Josephus exhibited a marvellous contempt of danger and death. A bold, hardy, industrious race always does heroic deeds when fully roused and struggling for its fatherland and freedom. This was pre-eminently the case with the Galileans. Their character as developed in that struggle may be taken as a hint as to what for three, or perhaps many more, generations had been the character of their ancestors. In judging the Galileans in that war, we must not use the same standards that we judge the Romans by. Difference of race, of civilization, and of national purpose must all be considered. It was an agricultural people matched against the finest military people of the world. Among the Galileans the discipline was poor. They fought, as Orientals have always done, with courage enough, and individual valor enough, but with a painful lack of system. Still, taken at this great disadvantage, they command our highest admiration. Josephus is aware that his force is not sufficient to cope with the Romans, and he calls upon Jeru

1 Wars, 1. 15. 3; for the only exceptions, see Wars, 1. 16. 1, 2. 2 Life, 16, 21, 39, 45, 47-51, 59.

8 Wars, 3. 3. 2.

Ant. 13. 16. 5; Keim, 1. 313.

salem for re-inforcements, but none are sent.1 Galilee must alone and unaided bear the brunt of the war during the first year of its progress. It must be remembered that this period is that of Rome's greatest power. Yet the emperor Nero, is "seized with consternation and alarm" at the magnitude of the revolt.2 The feeling at Rome is expressed by the fact that Vespasian, the best general of the empire, is chosen to deal with this rebellion, and, secondly, by the fact that such a splendid army of veterans is thought necessary to be massed at Ptolemais before operations can begin. The sight of these sixty thousand veterans, among whom there is the perfection of discipline, and who are backed by the moral power of almost uninterrupted victory, must send dismay to the hearts of those Galilean youth. This splendid army that has been victorious over every nation, and whose engines have levelled the foremost structures in the world, has come hither to try its strength and skill upon the people and fortresses of Galilee. The abandonment with which the Galileans plunge into this struggle admits of no retreat. To restore their country's ancient liberty is the wild dream of these brave misguided inen. The tough work before them seems to serve as a stimulus to greater boldness." At Jotapata they fight with desperate energy. The one hundred and

1 Wars, 3. 7. 2. 2 Wars, 3. 1. 1. 3 Wars, 3. 4. 2.

♦ Wars, 3. 6. 3; 3. 7. 3. Discipline of the Roman army, see Wars 3. 5 (all the chapter); a very minute and vivid account of its organization and discipline. Size of the army here spoken of, Tac. Hist. v. 1; Wars, 3. 4. 2; 4. 10. 3; Weber and Holtzmann, 2. 473; Graetz, 3. 437, army about Jerusalem 80,000; see Graetz, 3. 412; Weber and Holtzmann the same, 2. 488; Schneckenburger, 228; power and character of the enemy, Wars, 2. 20. 7; Weber and Holtzmann, 2. 474, quote Hausrath's brilliant description of the character of the two armies and the contrast between them; also ibid. 475, Gfrörer's to the same effect from his Preface to the Jewish War of Josephus; fear of Josephus's troops, Wars, 3. 6. 3; lack discipline, Wars, 3. 10. 2.

5 Weber and Holtzmann, 2. 463, where the motives are spoken of which could arouse a small people of three or four million against the world-empire and power of Rome.

6 Wars, 3. 7. 4.