and in a third species (C. Stoddartii, fig. 34) the whole appendage is converted into a horn, which is usually of a white colour, but assumes a purplish tint when the animal is excited. In the adult male of this latter species the horn is half an inch in length, but it is of quite minute size in the female and in the young. These appendages, as Dr. Günther has remarked to me, may be compared with the combs of gallinaceous birds, and apparently serve as ornaments.

In the genus Chameleon we come to the acme of difference between the sexes. The upper part of the skull of the male C. bifurcus (fig. 35), an inhabitant of Madagascar, is produced into two great, solid, bony projections, covered with scales like the rest of the head; and of this wonderful modification of structure the female exhibits only a rudiment. Again, in

Chamæleon Owenii (fig. 36), from the West Coast of Africa, the male bears on his snout and forehead three curious horns, of which the female has not a trace. These horns consist of an excrescence of bone covered with a smooth sheath, forming part of the general integu

ments of the body, so that they are identical in structure with those of a bull, goat, or other sheath-horned ruminant. Although the three horns differ so much in appearance from the two great prolongations of the skull in C. bifurcus, we can hardly doubt that they serve the same general purpose in the economy of these two animals. The first con

jecture, which will occur to every one, is that they are used by the males for fighting together; and as these animals are very quarrelsome,69 this is probably a correct view. Mr. T. W. Wood also informs me that he once watched two individuals of C. pumilus, fighting violently on the branch of a tree; they flung their heads about and tried to bite each other; they then rested for a time, and afterwards continued their battle.

With many lizards, the sexes differ slightly in colour, the tints and stripes of the males being brighter and more distinctly defined, than in the females. This, for instance, is the case with the above Cophotis and with the Acanthodactylus capensis of S. Africa. In a Cordylus of the latter country, the male is either much redder or greener than the female. In the Indian Calotes nigrilabris there is a still greater difference; the lips also of the male are black, whilst those of the female are green. In our common little viviparous lizard (Zootoca, vivipara) “the "under side of the body and base of the tail in the male are bright orange, spotted with black; in the female these parts are pale-greyish-green without spots.' We have seen that 69 Dr. Bucholz, Monatsbericht K. Preuss. Akad.' Jan. 1874, p. 78.

"9 70

70 Bell, "History of British Reptiles,' 2nd edit. 1849, p. 40.

the males alone of Sitana possess a throat-pouch; and this is splendidly tinted with blue, black, and red. In the Proctotretus tenuis of Chile the male alone is marked with spots of blue, green, and coppery-red."1 In many cases the males retain the same colours throughout the year, but in others they become much brighter during the breeding-season; I may give as an additional instance the Calotes maria, which at this season has a bright red head, the rest of the body being green.72

Both sexes of many species are beautifully coloured exactly alike; and there is no reason to suppose that such colours are protective. No doubt with the bright green kinds which live in the midst of vegetation, this colour serves to conceal them; and in N. Patagonia I saw a lizard (Proctotretus multimaculatus) which, when frightened, flattened its body, closed its eyes, and then from its mottled tints was hardly distinguishable from the surrounding sand. But the bright colours with which so many lizards are ornamented, as well as their various curious appendages, were probably acquired by the males as an attraction, and then transmitted either to their male offspring alone, or to both sexes. Sexual selection, indeed, seems to have played almost as important a part with reptiles as with birds; and the less conspicuous colours of the females in comparison with the males cannot be accounted for, as Mr. Wallace believes to be the case with birds, by the greater exposure of the females to danger during incubation.

CHAPTER XIII.

SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF BIRDS.

Sexual differences-Law of battle-Special weapons-Vocal organs Instrumental music-Love-antics and dances--Decorations, permanent and seasonal-Double and single annual moults-Display of ornaments by the males.

SECONDARY Sexual characters are more diversified and conspicuous in birds, though not perhaps entailing more important changes of structure, than in any other class of animals. I shall, therefore, treat the subject at considerable length. Male birds sometimes, though rarely, possess special weapons for fighting

71 For Proctotretus see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle:' Reptiles,' by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S. Africa, see 'Zoology of S. Africa: Reptiles,' by Sir Andrew Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For

the Indian Calotes, see 'Reptiles of British India,' by Dr Günther, p.

143.

72 Günther in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 778, with a coloured figure.

with each other. They charm the female by vocal or instrumental music of the most varied kinds. They are ornamented by all sorts of combs, wattles, protuberances, horns, air-distended sacks, top-knots, naked shafts, plumes and lengthened feathers gracefully springing from all parts of the body. The beak and naked skin about the head, and the feathers are often gorgeously coloured. The males sometimes pay their court by dancing, or by fantastic antics performed either on the ground or in the air. In one instance, at least, the male emits a musky odour, which we may suppose serves to charm or excite the female; for that excellent observer, Mr. Ramsay,' says of the Australian muskduck (Biziura lobata) that "the smell which the male emits during the summer months is confined to that sex, and in some individuals is retained throughout the year; I have never, even in the breeding-season, shot a female which had any smell of musk." So powerful is this odour during the pairing-season, that it can be detected long before the bird can be seen.2 On the whole, birds appear to be the most æsthetic of all animals, excepting of course man, and they have nearly the same taste for the beautiful as we have. This is shown by our enjoyment of the singing of birds, and by our women, both civilised and savage, decking their heads with borrowed plumes, and using gems which are hardly more brilliantly coloured than the naked skin and wattles of certain birds. In man, however, when cultivated, the sense of beauty is manifestly a far more complex feeling, and is associated with various intellectual ideas.

Before treating of the sexual characters with which we are here more particularly concerned, I may just allude to certain differences between the sexes which apparently depend on differences in their habits of life; for such cases, though common in the lower, are rare in the higher classes. Two humming-birds belonging to the genus Eustephanus, which inhabit the island of Juan Fernandez, were long thought to be specifically distinct, but are now known, as Mr. Gould informs me, to be the male and female of the same species, and they differ slightly in the form of the beak. In another genus of humming-birds (Grypus), the beak of the male is serrated along the margin and hooked at the extremity, thus differing much from that of the female. In the Neomorpha of New Zealand, there is, as we have seen, a still wider difference in the form of the beak in relation to the manner of feeding of the two sexes. Something of the same kind has been observed with the gold1 'Ibis,' vol. iii (new series) 1867, P. 414.

2 Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 383.

finch (Carduelis eleguns), for I am assured by Mr. J. Jenner Weir that the birdcatchers can distinguish the males by their slightly longer beaks. The flocks of males are often found feeding on the seeds of the teazle (Dipsacus), which they can reach with their elongated beaks, whilst the females more commonly feed on the seeds of the betony or Scrophularia. With a slight difference of this kind as a foundation, we can see how the beaks of the two sexes might be made to differ greatly through natural selection. In some of the above cases, however, it is possible that the beaks of the males may have been first modified in relation to their contests with other males; and that this afterwards led to slightly changed habits of life.

Law of Battle.-Almost all male birds are extremely pugnacious, using their beaks, wings, and legs for fighting together. We see this every spring with our robins and sparrows. The smallest of all birds, namely the humming-bird, is one of the most quarrelsome. Mr. Gosses describes a battle in which a pair seized hold of each other's beaks, and whirled round and round, till they almost fell to the ground; and M. Montes de Oca, in speaking of another genus of humming-bird, says that two males rarely meet without a fierce aërial encounter: when kept in cages" their fighting has mostly ended in the splitting of "the tongue of one of the two, which then surely dies from being unable to feed."4 With Waders, the males of the common water-hen (Gallinula chloropus) “when pairing, fight violently for the females: they stand nearly upright in the "water and strike with their feet." Two were seen to be thus engaged for half an hour, until one got hold of the head of the other, which would have been killed, had not the observer interfered; the female all the time looking on as a quiet spectator. Mr. Blyth informs me that the males of an allied bird (Gallicrex cristatus) are a third larger than the females, and are so pugnacious during the breeding-season, that they are kept by the natives of Eastern Bengal for the sake of fighting. Various other birds are kept in India for the same purpose, for instance, the bulbuls (Pycnonotus hæmorrhous) which "fight with great spirit."6

5

The polygamous ruff (Machetes pugnax, fig. 37) is notorious for his extreme pugnacity; and in the spring, the males, which are considerably larger than the females, congregate day after

3 Quoted by Mr. Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' 1861,

p. 29.

4 Gould, ibid. p. 52.

'W Thompson, Nat. Hist. of

Ireland: Birds,' vol. ii. 1850, p 327.

6 • Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 96.