as led to the discovery of the New World, of which we are presently to give the history, it is necessary to take a view of their naval operations. Various circumstances urged the Portuguese to exert their activity in this new direction, and enabled them to accomplish under. takings apparently superior to the natural force of their monarchy. John I. King of Portugal, surnamed the Bastard, having obtained se. cure possession of the crown, in the 1411, soon perceived, that it would be impossible to preserve public order, or domestic tranquil. lity, without finding some employment for the restless spirit of his subjects. With this view, he assembled a numerous fleet at Lisbon, composed of all the ships he could fit out in his own kingdom, and of many hired from foreigners. This great armament fitted out in 1412, was destined to attack the Moors settled on the coasts of Barbary. While the fleet was equipping, a few vessels were appointed to sail along the western shore of Africa, bounded by the Atlantic ocean, and to discover the unknown countries situated there. The particular situation of Portugal was an invitation to this new undertaking, and the genius of the age being favourable to the execution of it, it proved successful. The vessels sent on the discovery doubled the formidable Cape Non, which had terminated the progress of former navigators, and proceeded one hundred and sixty miles beyond it, to Cape Bojador. As its rocky cliffs, which stretched a considerable way into the Atlantic, appeared more dreadful than the promontory they had passed, the Portuguese commander was afraid to attempt to sail round it, but returned to Lisbon, more satisfied with having advanced so far, than ashamed of not having gone further. Though this voyage was in itself inconsiderable, yet it increased the passion for discovery, which began to shew itself in Portugal. The fortunate issue of the king's expedition against the Moors of Barbary, added strength to that spirit in the nation, and pushed it on to new undertakings. In order to render these successful, it was necessary, that they should be conducted by a person who possessed abilities capable of discerning what was attainable, who enjoyed leisure to form a regular system for prosecuting discovery, and who was animated with ardour, that would persevere in spite of obsta cles and repulses: happily for Portugal, she found all these qualities in Henry duke of Viseo, the fourth son of King John. That prince, in his early youth having accompanied his father in his expedition to Barbary, distinguished himself by many deeds of valour. To the martial spirit which was the characteristic of every man of noble birth at that period, he added all the accomplishments of a more enlightened and polished age. He cultivated the arts and sciences, which were then little known, and despised by persons of his exalted situation. He was particularly fond of the study of geography, and he early acquired such a knowledge of the habitable globe, as discovered the great probability of finding new and opulent countries, by sailing along the coast of Africa, The commencement of every new undertaking is usually attended with trifling success. In the year 1418 he fitted out a single ship, and gave the command of it to two gentlemen of his house. hold, who offered themselves as volunteers to conduct the enterprise. He instructed them to double' Cape Bojador, and thence to steer towards the south. They held their course along the shore, the mode of navigation which still prevailed, when a sudden squali of wind arose, which drove them out to sea, and, when they expected every moment to perish, it blew them on an unknown island, which, from their happy escape, they named Porto Santo. They instantly returned to Portugal with the news of their discovery, and were received by Henry with the applause and honour due to fortunate adventurers. The next year Henry sent out three ships under the same commanders, in order to make a settlement in Porto Santo. From this island they observed towards the south a fixed spot in the horizon, like a small black cloud. They were by degrees led to conjecture it might be land, and steering towards it, they arrived at a considerable island, uninhabited and covered with wood, which on that account they called Madeira. As it was Henry's principal object to render his discoveries useful to his country, he immediately equipped a fleet to carry a colony of Portuguese to these islands. He took care that they should be furnished not only with the seeds, plants, and domestic animals common in Europe, but, as he foresaw that the warmth of the climate and fertility of the soil, would prove favourable to the rearing of other productions, he procured slips of the vine from the island of Cyprus, the rich wines of which were then in great request, and plants of the sugar cane from Sicily, into which it had been recently introduced. These throve so prosperously in this new country, that the advantage of their culture was immediately perceived, and the sugar and wine of Madeira, soon became considerable articles of commerce, from which the Portuguese derived great advantage. These important successes gave a spur to the spirit of discovery, and induced the Portuguese, instead of servilely creeping along the coast, to venture into the open sea. They doubled Cape Bojador, in 1433, and advanced within the tropics. In the course of a few years they discovered the river Senegal, and all the coast extending from Cape Blanco, to Cape de Verd. The Portuguese had hitherto been guided in their discoveries, or encouraged to attempt them, by the light and information they received from the works of the ancient mathematicians and geographers; but when they began to enter the torrid zone, the notions which prevailed among the ancients that the heat was so intense as to render it insupportable, deterred them, for some time, from proceeding. However, notwithstanding these unfavourable appearances, in 1449 the Portuguese discovered the Cape de Verd islands, which lie off the promontory of that name, and soon after the isles cailed Azores. As the former of these are above three Anndred miles from the African coast and the latter nine hundred miles from any continent, it is evident that the Portuguese had made great advances in the art of navigation. The passion for discoveries received an unfortunate check by the death of Prince Henry, whose superior knowledge had hitherto directed all the operations of the discoveries, and whose patronage had encouraged and protected them. However, notwithstanding all the advantages they derived from these, the Portuguese, during his life, did not advance, in their utmost progress towards the south, within five degrees of the equinoctial line; and after their continued exertions for half a century, hardly 1500 miles of the coast of Africa were discovered. The Portuguese in 1471, ventured to cross the line, and, to their astonishment, found that region of the torrid zone, which was supposed to be scorched with intolerable heat, to be habitable, populous, and fertile. Under the direction of John II. in 1484, a powerful fleet was fitted out, which advanced above fifteen hundred miles beyond the line,' and the Portuguese, for the first time beheld a new heaven, and observed the stars of another hemisphere. By their constant intercourse with the people of Africa, they gradually acquired some knowledge of those parts of that country, which they had not visited. The information they received from the natives, added to what they had observed in their own voyages, began to open prospects of a more extensive nature. They found, as they proceeded southward, that the continent of Africa, instead of extending in breadth, according to the doctrine of Ptolemy, appeared sensibly to contract itself and to bend towards the east. This induced them to give credit to the ancient Phenician voyages round Africa, which had long been considered as fabulous, and gave them reason to hope, that by following the same route, they might arrive at the East Indies, and engross that commerce, which had so long contributed to enrich other powers. In 1486, the conduct of a voyage for this purpose, the most dan gerous and difficult the Portuguese had ever embarked in, was entrusted to Bartholomew Diaz, who stretched boldly towards the south, and proceeding beyond the utmost limits to which his countrymen had hitherto advanced, discovered near a thousand miles of a new country. Neither the combined powers of violent tempests, and the frequent mutinies of his crew, nor even the calamities of famine, which he suffered from losing his store-ship, could deter him from the pursuit of his grand object. In spite of all, he at last discovered that lofty promontory, which bounds Africa to the south; but he did nothing more than discover it. The violence of the winds, the shattered condition of his ships, and the turbulent spirit of his sailors compelled him to return after a voyage of sixteen months. The king of Portugal, as he now entertained no doubt of having found the long desired route to India, gave this promontory the name of the Cape of Good Hope. These sanguine ideas of success were strengthened by the intelligence the king received over land, in consequence of his em bassy to Abyssinia. Covillam and Payva, by the king's instructions, had repaired to Grand Cairo. From this city they travelled in company with a caravan of Egyptian merchants, and embarking on the Red Sea, arrived at Aden, in Arabia. There they separated; Payva sailed directly towards Abyssinia; Covillam embarked for the East Indies, and having visited Calecut, Goa, and other cities of the Malabar-coast, returned to Sofala, on the east side of Africa, and thence to Grand Cairo, which Payva and he had fixed upon as their place of meeting. The former however was unfortunately and cruelly murdered in Abyssinia: but Covillam found at Cairo two Portuguese Jews, whom the king of Portugal had despatched after them, in order to receive an account of their proceedings, and to communicate to them new instructions By one of these Jews, Covillam transmitted to Portugal á journal of his proceedings by sea and land, his remarks upon the trade of India, together with exact maps of the coast on which he had touched; and from what he him self had observed, as well as from the information of skilful seamen in different countries, he concluded, that by sailing round Africa, a passage might be found to the East Indies. The happy coincidence of Covillam's report and opinion with the discoveries lately made by Diaz, left hardly any shadow of doubt with respect to the possibility of sailing from Europe. However, the vast length of the voyage, and the furious storms, which Diaz had encountered near the Cape of Good Hope, alarmed and intimidated the Portuguese to such a degree, although they were become adventurous and skilful mariners, that some time was requisite to prepare their minds for this dangerous and extraordinary voyage. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. Introduction of commercial pursuits Imperfections of navigation among the ancients. Navigation and commerce of the Egyptians, Phenicians, Jews, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. The first regular plan of discovery formed by the Portuguese. Voyage of Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, who penetrated as far as the Cape of Good Hope. CHAPTER II. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, a subject to the republic of Genoa, was among the foremost of those foreigners whom the fame of the discoveries made by the Portuguese had allured into their service Though neither the time nor place of his birth are certainly known, yet it was on all hands agreed, that he was descended from an honourable family reduced to indigence by misfortunes. As his ancestors were accustomed to a seafaring life, Columbus became naturally fond of it himself, and very early discovered those talents for that profession, which plainly indicated the great man he was one day to be. He applied with uncommon ardour to the study of the Latin tongue, geography, astronomy, and the art of drawing. Thus qualified, in 1461, at the age of fourteen, he went to sea, and began his career on that element, which conducted him to so much glory. In 1467, he repaired to Lisbon, where many of his countrymen were settled. They soon conceived such a favourable opinion of his merit and talents, that they warmly solicited him to remain in their kingdom, where his naval skill and experience could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. To find out a passage by sea to the East Indies, was the great object in view at that period. From the time that the Portuguese doubled Cape de Verd, this was the point at which they aimed in all their navigations. The tediousness of the course, which the Portuguese were pursuing, naturally led Columbus to consider, whether a shorter and more direct passage to the East Indies, than that projected by sailing round the African continent, might not be found out. After revolving long and seriously every circumstance suggested by his superiour knowledge in the theory, as well as practice of navigation, after comparing attentively the observations of modern pilots, with the hints and conjectures of ancient authors, he at last concluded, that by sailing directly towards the west, across the Atlantic ocean, new countries, which probably formed a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered. Filled with these ideas, he laid his scheme before the senate of Genoa, and making his country the first tender of his service, offered to sail under the banners of the republic, in quest of the new regions he expected to discover; but they inconsiderately rejected his proposal, as a dream of a chimerical projector. He then submitted his plan to the Portuguese, who endeavoured to rob him of the honour, by sending another person privately to pursue the same track proposed by him; but the pilot chosen to execute Columbus's plan, had neither the genius nor the fortitude of its author. Contrary winds arose, no sight of approaching land appeared, his cou rage failed, and he returned to Lisbon, execrating a plan, which he had no abilities to execute. Columbus no sooner discovered this dishonourable treatment, than he instantly quitted Portugal in disgust, and repaired to Spain about the close of the year 1484. Here he resolved to propose it in person to Ferdinand and Isabella, who at that time governed the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon. He also sent his brother to England, to propose his plan to Henry VII. After a long succession of mortifying circumstances and disappointments, Isabella was persuaded to send for Columbus to court. The cordial reception he there met with from the queen, together |