QUEKETT MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.

At the meeting of the Quekett Club on the 23rd September, 1870, Dr. L. Beale, F.R.S., in the chair, four new members were elected, a number of presents to the library were announced, and thirty slides were presented to the cabinet. A paper was read "On so-called Spontaneous Generation," by Benjamin T. Lowne, M.R.C.S.Eng., &c. The following is an abstract of this paper, which occupied an hour in reading. Mr. Lowne commenced by saying:

When I announced a month ago that I would read you a paper on Spontaneous Generation," I had no idea that one of the greatest living naturalists was going to give a most able résumé on the subject, or perhaps I should have hesitated in coming before you. Nevertheless I feel it is a matter for congratulation that I did so, as many unanswered questions have arisen since Professor Huxley delivered his able address at Liverpool.

Two hundred and two years ago Francesco Redi successfully combated the then prevalent doctrine of spontaneous generation by the most simple, nay, almost childlike experiments, such as putting meat under fine gauze, and so showing that maggots are not spontaneously generated. Since that day the tendency of experiments has certainly been in favour of Redi's aphorism, "Omne vivum e vivo."

The question, however, all turns upon that little word omne, all; whether all living things originate from germs, or whether some may originate spontaneously from not living matter.

Now, there can be no doubt but that there was a first cell and a first organism which had no progenitor. Professor Huxley said last week, that although he could not believe anything in the absence of evidence upon the subject, that "expectation is permissible where belief is not;" and that if it were given him "to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time to the still more remote period when the earth was passing through physical and chemical conditions, which it can no more see again than a man can recall his infancy," he "should expect to be a witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter."

To show you that I am not biassed in this matter, and that I am no partisan, I tell you I go farther in my expectation than Professor Huxley, and I think that if we could produce the conditions we might see amœbiform protoplasm originating even yet from inorganic matter. Perhaps, as Dr. Bastian suggests, colloid may be intermediate between inorganic and organic living material, but I tell you, gentlemen, this is all expectation, and should not be belief, as we have not at present a tittle of evidence in its favour. No doubt, with Mr. Charles Darwin's hypothesis, the origin of living organic matter from inorganic matter would supply a gap in the evolution of the animal kingdom, but we must not on that account found a scientific belief.

Now, gentlemen, I shall very carefully sift the supposed evidence in favour of spontaneous generation; I shall divide this evidence into that which is purely microscopic and that which is dependent on experiment.

First, with regard to the microscopic evidence, it consists in the assertion that some observers have seen organic living cells and fungus spores built up by the aggregation of minute granules. Now, there is very strong evidence on the other hand that this does not happen; the organisms described as fungus spores are in some cases not fungus spores at all, and in other cases they have been observed with a hilum or point at which they were attached to a parent. Surely, gentlemen, we cannot believe this point of attachment was the character of a spore formed de novo.

On the other hand, I should be sorry to deny, with my present knowledge, that it is possible organisms of a simpler kind, such as unicellular organisms, may be built up in this way. If such a mode of evolution does take place, I still believe it is from pre-existing germs; such gemmules, for instance, as Mr. Darwin believes in, in his beautiful provisional hypothesis of pangenesis. I believe, if it can be proved that organisms can be produced by aggregation, it will be found that this only takes place when pre-existing cells have given their contents in the fluid experimented on.

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With regard to the experimental evidence, it has been arrived at from two classes of experiments.

The first aims at the production of known organic forms from solution of animal or vegetable matter, the second aims at the production of new and unknown forms under new conditions in saline solutions.

I shall consider these two sets of experiments separately.

In the first, or simplest set of experiments, the most contradictory evidence has been arrived at by different observers. The whole, to my mind, may, however, be summed up in the following.

If we receive the usually accepted belief that the boiling temperature destroys germs, we must accept spontaneous generation as a fact. If, on the other hand, we believe that germs are not killed in this manner, these experiments only show that if the greatest possible care is used, germs may not be admitted and a negative result may be arrived at, and yet that germs may find their way into the flasks of the most careful experimenter, and may afterwards germinate.

Now, gentlemen, I have instituted a series of the most careful experiments, which have shown conclusively to my mind that germs are not destroyed by the boiling temperature.

I took a neutral solution of acetate of ammonia and put into it a number of spores of the little mould known as Penicillium glaucum, and boiled them well. I then enclosed some of the boiled fluid and germs in capillary glass tubes, like those used for preserving vaccine lymph. I then carefully examined the tubes by scrutinizing them with the microscope for an hour each, and not a spore had germinated, not a mycelial filament existed in the tubes. I then put the tubes into a warm place by the stove, and in twenty-four hours numerous mycelial filaments of considerable length had protruded from many of the

* Mr. Lowne spoke at some length in favour of this hypothesis, and read that portion of Dr. Hooker's address to the British Association at Norwich, in 1868, upon the subject.

spores. Now, gentlemen, I should think the most hardy advocate of spontaneous generation would hardly assert that these spores had originated de novo, and germinated in a single night and day.

To make the experiment more complete, I enclosed in another tube some spores which had not been boiled, and I found about the same number had germinated in this tube as in those containing the boiled spores.

I have tried another set of experiments of a similar kind. I boiled a vegetable infusion containing a quantity of the bead-like growing mycelium of some fungus, probably a state of Penicillium, and mounted a few portions in a cell for the microscope. I then carefully examined and drew these portions, and watched them from hour to hour, and saw new cells formed and new buds put out. I have done this again and again with the same result.

I have further found that this process is arrested in sealed tubes after a few hours; I cannot tell why, but I strongly suspect from the absence of dissolved air in the fluids: Mr. Cooke has suggested it may possibly be from the absence of dissolved nitrogen. I strongly suspect it is from this fact that we are able to preserve meats, &c., in vacuo.

Of this at least there can be no doubt, both the growing mycelium and the spores of the common blue mould, Penicillium glaucum, will grow after boiling, and it is nevertheless possible to preserve meat, &c., on a large scale, by enclosing it in vacuo after boiling it.

I may here remark that Dr. Bastian's eighth experiment,* in which he found that an infusion of turnip decomposed more rapidly when enclosed in vacuo than a similar solution enclosed in a flask containing air, is simply incomprehensible, and is a contradiction to the wellknown process of preserving meats, vegetables, fish, &c.

I think, gentlemen, very few will believe we are justified, without evidence, in believing a temperature somewhat higher will kill these spores if boiling does not. I therefore look upon it that if a few observers will repeat my very simple experiments, no evidence is afforded by such experiments as those I have included under this first division in favour of generation de novo.

The second series of experiments which aim at the production of new and unknown organisms, afford a wider field for speculation. I must confess, however, that in every case which I have seen, these socalled new organisms have appeared to me undoubtedly foreign bodies, which have accidentally gained access to the solutions.

The most recent experiments of this kind were carried out by Dr. Bastian, and their results have been published in 'Nature.' In these experiments a solution of sodic-phosphate and ammoniac carbonate was enclosed in vacuo whilst boiling, and certain spiral fibres and portions of a fungus, like penicillium in fruit, were found after a time in the solutions.

With a view to discover whether the spore-bearing portions of Penicillium would stand boiling, I tried the unripe spore-bearing filaments, and found that they were not altered in their appearance by such treatment. The ripe spores are, however, immediately scattered

*Nature,' Pt. xxxvi., p. 194.

by contact with fluid. Now I can readily understand why these fungi were not discovered until after a long lapse of time: I find solutions of sodic phosphate throw down a flocculent precipitate after a time, and in those specimens which Dr. Bastian was courteous enough to show me, I observed that the object was surrounded by just such a precipitate, which he called correctly enough granular matter. I suspect the collection of such a flocculus around the fungus drew his attention to the spot where the minute mass of fungus was.

Another reason for not believing that the fruit-bearing stems of Penicillium, which Dr. Bastian figures, were formed in the solutions, is that these fungi never fructify in fluid. My friend Mr. M. C. Cooke tells me that he never heard of any fungi, except such as are parasites on insects, fructifying in fluid, or so long as a plentiful supply of fluid is present. As he very forcibly put it, take the vinegar plant as an example; so long as there is plenty of fluid, it never produces fruit; but take it out of the fluid, and its surface will soon be covered with blue mould. With regard to the so-called spiral fibre organisms of Dr. Bastian, they have puzzled me very much. I never, however, believed but that they were some very common accidental material which had found its way into his solutions.

I observed that he only found these "organisms" in solutions containing sodic phosphate. I have tested and had tested for me three samples of crystals of this salt, and in all free soda was present. I have since tried the action of very dilute solutions of caustic alkali on various kinds of organic fibre, and have found wool fibres, minute particles of feathers, and some kinds of spiders' thread twist into spirals under its influence. Now, the spirals produced from spider's silk correspond most closely with Dr. Bastian's spiral fibre. In my own mind I have no doubt the specimen he kindly showed me was spider's silk.*

At any rate, gentlemen, I do not think in the face of this we ought to conclude that we have discovered spontaneous evolution from the appearance of spirals in an alkaline solution.

I apprehend then, sir, from what I have said, if my experiments are confirmed, which can easily be done, that at present, let our philosophic faith be what it may," we have no evidence whatever of spontaneous evolution.

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A discussion followed entirely in favour of Mr. Lowne's views on the insufficiency or absence of any evidence in favour of spontaneous generation, in which the President, Mr. M. C. Cooke, and others took part. The President, having left the chair for the purpose, also spoke at some length upon the subject, demonstrating with great clearness several important errors into which Dr. Bastian must have fallen, and disposing in a masterly manner of a number of arguments advanced and relied upon by the advocates of spontaneous generation. The results of some experiments by Dr. Child, which were made at the

* My friend Mr. Charles Stewart tells me one species of common spider spine twisted silk. I have not seen this; but I found the silk of Epiera diadema, the common garden spider, sometimes twists into beautiful spirals under the influence of dilute alkaline solution.

Journal,

laboratory of the University of Oxford during the previous week in repetition of those of Dr. Bastian, were communicated to the meeting, and the question was declared to resolve itself merely into one of the exclusion of germs. A number of other points of great interest as bearing upon the general subject were touched upon by the speaker, who was listened to throughout with the greatest attention, and resumed his seat amidst great applause. A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Lowne for his very able and important paper was carried unanimously, and the proceedings terminated, as usual, by a conversazione, at which microscopical objects of interest were exhibited by Messrs. Conder, Hainworth, Meacher, Quick, Slade, and T. C. White.

BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.*

August 25th. Microscopical Section. Mr. T. H. Hennah, President, in the chair.-An evening on mounting microscopic objects, when practical instruction in some of the different methods of mounting objects for the microscope was given by the following gentlemen :

Mr. Hennah showed how to mount diatoms as day objects, in the course of which operation he gave a caution against using a pipette in taking them out of the store bottle, giving preference to a glass rod.

He next illustrated the mode of mounting in glycerine jelly, one of the most valuable agents in preserving animal tissue or vegetable preparations; and pointed out that objects could be temporarily preserved in it, and laid by without fear of injury, until time could be found for finishing the preparation,

Dr. Hallifax gave instruction in this method of making shallow or deep cells for objects mounted in fluid, and detailed the experiments he had made with different substances to form a cell of any thickness, which should be permanent, and, at the same time, not be acted upon by the medium in which mounted. He had found a mixture of marine glue and shellac gave the best results.

Several ingenious contrivances for removing minute objects from fluid, floating them on the slide in the exact position required, as well as a modification of the turn-table for enabling the brush to be held steadily in a perpendicular manner, were also shown by Dr. Hallifax.

Mr. Wonfor showed how to fix cells with marine glue, and illustrated the process of mounting dry objects, from the fixing the cell to the finishing the slide ready for the cabinet. For dry objects he had found nothing so permanent as glass cells, or, what was cheaper, brass rings, either of which could be easily attached by marine glue, the most trustworthy cement for fixing. He had tried a great variety of cells, and found objections to all but glass and metal.

Mr. Wonfor also exhibited one of Dr. Mathews' improved turntables for making shallow cells, and pointed out its superiority over the old form.

The comparative value of different cements was discussed, and several practical hints in minutiæ of mounting and preparation were given by the same gentleman during the evening.

* Report furnished by the Secretary.