a dozen different ways of solving any ONE of the problems that come up in connection with your work?

13. Sensitiveness to Criticism.-How do you take the criticisms, direct or implied, from employer, friends, and associates? If you brood over them, if the sting of criticism keeps you from seeing that it may be USEFUL nevertheless, you may be OVER-SENSITIVE.

14. Ability to Size Up People.-Do you see only good in some people and only weaknesses in others? When you discover weaknesses in people, does this keep you from seeing their strong points? Are you observing enough to be able, after talking with a new acquaintance for fifteen minutes, to specify how he impressed you as regards the following traits on this chart-neatness of dress, effectiveness of speech, friendliness, tact, cheerfulness?

15. Memory. Are you good at remembering names, faces, and personal traits about the people you meet? In the accompanying article there are suggestions for developing this ability.

16. Neatness.-Are you painstaking in regard to your personal appearance?

17. Health Habits.-This is not a matter of your endowment of physical health. Severe illness may not mean that you are short in this trait. Ask yourself whether your HABITS are those that make for or against good health, and how they tell on your working ability and mental attitude day by day.

18. Discrimination.-Can you discriminate between more important and less important matters? Do you clog your daily routine with unnecessary work on comparatively unimportant details? Have you realized the importance of putting aside work and personal problems when it comes time to relax and rest?

19. Economy.-Do you save time and effort by doing things in the right and easiest way without wasted motions?

20. Capacity to Delegate Work.-This quality is especially important for those who are, or hope to become, executives. Executives often fall short in this trait because they lack persistence of a certain kind or because of vanity or selfishness. Some of the things the average man should know about this trait are given in the accompanying article.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Compare the different statements on the aim of education. Just how do the statements agree and wherein do they differ?

2. Which list of educational objectives do you prefer? Why? What should be the source of such objectives?

3. What contribution has psychology made to education?

4. What are the psychological outcomes of teaching and learning? Justify the statement that the schools should emphasize the

adaptive controls rather than specific controls. Explain why attitudes and ideals are such important outcomes.

5. How would you test the success of your work as an instructor?

6. Contrast the methods of science and the methods of opinion. 7. What is necessary in order to make a body of facts and laws a "science"? Define an experiment.

8. How may a student of education expect to profit from a study of educational psychology?

9. What are the major problems of educational psychology? Which of these major problems do you consider the most important to the teacher? Why?

10. What is meant by behavior? What is consciousness? What does Bode mean by saying that "conscious behavior is essentially forward looking, controlled by the future"?

11. What is the social mind? How is the individual mind related to the social mind? Is the teacher in more need of a knowledge of social psychology or a knowledge of individual psychology? 12. Find in your experience of to-day some cases in which your consciousness has directed or controlled your action.

Can you

find any instances of action or behavior that have not been directed by your consciousness?

13. Why does teaching require aims?

14. What aims of education offer satisfactory guidance to the teacher in the direction of pupils' learning activities?

15. In what sense is speech a dominating form of behavior?

16. Show that speech is a form of bodily activity.

17. Describe the evolution of language.

18. Study the aims mentioned in the readings with a view of determining:

a What they should accomplish

Which are the more essential for present-day society

c Whether any one of these aims would constitute a satisfactory guide for the teacher

d Whether several, or all of them together, furnish satisfactory guidance to the teacher in directing the learning process

e In what respects should they be supplemented, if unsatisfactory 19. Read Bulletin No. 35, 1918, Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, entitled "Cardinal Principles of Education," pp. 9-16. This statement sets forth what this commission regards as the goal of education in the United States. Study this statement with a view of determining:

a The purpose of democracy

The function of education in democracy

c The essential elements in education for democracy, pp. 9-11 d What should be the rôle of the secondary schools in achieving these objectives, pp. 11-16

e

What in the opinion of this commission the high school should do to provide opportunity for the development of economic, civic, domestic, and physical efficiency; also rational enjoyment of leisure

20. To what extent do these statements of educational objectives clarify the task of the teacher in pointing out what he must do in the teaching process? To what extent, for example, do they indicate what he must do in choosing materials for developing domestic efficiency, health, vocational efficiency, etc? Would you know after reading this statement just what should be taught for the attainment of each of these aims? If not, why not? What additional information would be desirable?

REFERENCES

FREEMAN, F. N., How Children Learn (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917), Chap. i.

GATES, A. I., Psychology For Students of Education (New York, Macmillan Co., 1923), Chap. i.

PILLSBURY, W. B., Essentials of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1919), Chap. i.

STARCH, DANIEL, Educational Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1918), Chap. i.

CHAPTER II

THE COMPONENTS OF BEHAVIOR

The changes that take place in the human being may be described in terms of responses, such as thoughts, feelings, ideas, attitudes, movements and the inhibition of movements which he makes, of situations which are to be found. in one's environment, and of bonds by which responses and situations are connected.

Any thought, feeling or action means a tendency to respond in a certain way to a certain situation. It involves a situation which initiates the response, and a neural connection or bond whereby the response is made possible.

Thorndike and Kilpatrick are the leading exponents of the situation-response hypothesis (1,2,). Thurstone has given one of the best criticisms of the hypothesis (3). The Thorndikian explanation of behavior can be found in the operation of certain laws of readiness, exercise and effect. An explanation of the functioning of these laws is sought in the neurones and neurone patterns of the cortex (4,5,6).

Every thought, feeling, movement, and prevention of movement is a response to some stimulus or situation 7,8,9). Some of these responses are unlearned. The great majority of the responses of adults are acquired reactions.

The recent experimental studies of the conditioned reflexes serve to emphasize the importance of building up in every individual the right sort of reactions (10,11). On the whole however, there is very little known about the conditioned reflex. Like all other so-called "master keys," it is inadequate for the explanation of all forms of human activities.

1. Situation and Response in Human Behavior [THORNDIKE, E. L., Education: A First Book, pp. 53-60. Copyright, 1912, by Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

Situations, responses, and bonds form the elements in a behavioristic psychology. Thorndike's Educational Psychology, and Kilpatrick's Foundations of Method are excellent illustrations of this point of view in educational literature. While this point of view has many merits, there are other points of view that are worthy of serious consideration. The terms stimulus or situation are used to denote the total state of affairs and conditions influencing an organism at any given time. What the organism does, thinks, feels, or imagines as a result of being stimulated is called its reaction or response. Situations that produce responses do not appear or act singly. They come as a continuous flow of a stream. The responses are, consequently, often overlapping. It is the business of the psychologist to study the responses by analyzing out the element of the total situation that produced it. By ascertaining the relationships between situations and responses, the psychologist is better able to predict and control behavior.

A man's life may be considered as a series of situations which act upon him and a series of reactions of thought, feeling, or action which he makes to these situations. Thorndike points out two reasons why students of education should think of behavior in terms of situations and responses. The terms both economize the thought in the science, and lead to two very important but simple precepts. They economize in the sense they can be likened to cause and effect. The situation, including the stimulus acting on the individual at the moment and the nature of the individual, may be regarded as the cause; the response, if taken together with changes wrought in the outside world, may be regarded as the effect. The practical suggestions given by Thorndike

are:

1. Consider any situation before letting it act upon a pupil. 2. Consider the response which is desired, before devising a situation to evoke it.