these directions is going on, and its course is fraught with advantage to the peoples of both countries.

In the magnificent exhibition of fruits and flowers of the world's industrial gardens, now in full display at Paris, a considerable section is devoted to the exposition of articles from Japan. This forms, indeed, one of the most interesting portions of the wondrous show, and the ingenuity and originality manifested by the artists and workpeople who have prepared the articles are extraordinary. The fact of their transmitting so much valuable property to France, and taking so palpable an interest in the success of the gigantic undertaking, is in itself a strong proof that the Japanese are becoming fully alive to the advantages of international traffic; as it certainly proves that the councils of the Tycoon are not now under the influence of the old spirit of exclusiveness. Taking this, with other signs and portents of a similar character into account, there can be little danger in predicting that closer and far more familiar relations between the states of Europe generally and Japan will soon exist. Such a result cannot but be productive of good to all, and we hail its approach as a certain guarantee of increasing commercial prosperity, for this country especially.

If, however, there are externally to Japan, as it were, symptoms of an increasing intercourse such as has been indicated, there are corresponding symptoms within its own limits. To one of these latter it is proposed now to invite attention, namely, that of a proposed reformation of the metallic currency, which subject is under discussion by the Japanese Government. On matters of trade and currency which, as we so well know, have the most direct and vital bearing upon each other, the people of Japan have been instructed to some extent by the Dutch, with whom their trading transactions have hitherto been almost exclusively carried on. The information thus gained nevertheless was of a limited kind, and was probably sought for the purpose of meeting the internal wants of the country, and the consequence was the establishment of a system of coinage by no means cosmopolitan in its application, but, on the contrary, most narrow and artificial. The coinage of Japan was, however, it must be admitted, carefully devised, from one point of view, for its especial object, and its arrangement, though presenting startling anomalies to those unaccustomed to it, was not ill adapted to the daily necessities of the native population. The treaty which was completed in 1858, conjointly between Great Britain, America, and Japan, and which, to a very limited degree, opened up commerce between the three countries, first induced the Japanese to take into earnest consideration the nature and

peculiarities of their own metallic currency, and its adaptability or otherwise to the purposes of foreign trade. This consideration was a fact forced upon them by pressure of the strongest influence which it is said can operate upon traders in generalthat of self-interest. To make this point more clear and intelligible, let us describe the coinage of Japan, as it was arranged at the period just cited.

The principal coins circulating anterior to 1858, were the gold kobang, the gold itzebu, and the silver itzebu. The original kobang of gold was worth about 18s. 3 d., or 18s. 5d. British. The gold itzebu was worth one-third of the gold kobang, and the silver itzebu equalled in value 1s. 4d. English money. At the time of the partial opening up of foreign trading transactions, the kobang circulated in Japan at four itzebus, although its European value was actually nearly fourteen itzebus! The immediate consequence of this latter circumstance on the sharp traders of America and England, was to induce them to buy up all the kobangs that came in their way at the Japanese valuation. By this proceeding, which no doubt enlightened the poor natives, and revealed to them the truly commercial character of their new customers, the latter gained large sums of money. The lesson thus practically taught and forcibly illustrated, was speedily learnt by the Japanese, who set about purchasing the remaining kobangs. The result necessarily was a total disappearance of the kobang from the channels of general circulation.

At present, therefore, gold and silver itzebus are the coins which mainly do duty as the circulating media of Japan. These are supplemented, however, by a silver coin known as the itacune, and which is equal in value to 12s. British. There are also in use among the humbler classes of the native population, subsidiary pieces of copper and of iron, and which are known individually as the sen, or cash. Of these 376 are required to equal in value an English shilling. The obsolete kobangs were thin and oval-shaped discs of flattened gold, two inches in length, and 1 inches in width. Their weight averaged 200 English grains, and their almost universal degree of fineness was 16. The ornamentation of the kobang was of the most primitive and simple nature. A kind of scroll like a floreated design at the top, and at the bottom of the obverse, was supposed to represent the coat of arms of the Dairi. Characters stamped in immediately beneath the upper coat of arms indicated the exact weight and value of the coin and the date of its production. Above the lower coat of arms was the name of the Master of the Mint at which it was

280

The coarsest specimens of mintage extant, and not equal to the Chinese "cash," illustrated at page 121, vol. iii. of INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

minted, and who thus guaranteed and made himself responsible for its genuineness.* In the centre of the reverse was the official mark of the Director-general of the gold and silver coinages, and not unfrequently the names also of private individuals were imprinted on the same side to demonstrate that the coin had passed through their balances and not been "found wanting."

The gold itzebu, or, in the more vulgar tongue, the "itjib," weighs about 60 English troy grains, and its degree of fineness is 569 It is simply an oblong piece of gold plate metal, with rectangular ends admirably adapted for cutting holes in pockets. It is of an inch in width, and ornamented by a coat of arms, characters exemplifying its weight and value, and other official marks of the director of coins. The itacune is an oval-ended plate of silver, three inches in length, 1 inches in width, weighing 1160 English troy grains, and possessing a degree of fineness equal to. It is stamped with the Imperial arms, top and bottom, with declaration of current weight and value in the middle.

As has been stated, some of the consequences of the treaty were soon felt in a material sense. It was ascertained that one Mexican dollar was, approximately, equal in value to three itzebus. Foreign merchants were therefore entitled to demand three itzebus in exchange for a dollar, and as, by the provisions of the same treaty, permission was given for the free export of gold and silver, the gold coins could be obtained at the Mint price for the itzebus thus acquired, they were speedily bought up and exported. Is it surprising that the Japanese soon complained that they were being robbed under the actual conditions of the treaty which thus legalized fraud? Sir Rutherford Alcock, who was a witness of these evils, strenuously endeavoured to remove, or at least to mitigate them. He advised that the Government of the Tycoon should remodel its own currency laws, and his suggestions were partially adopted. Had they been wholly acted upon, greater good would have resulted. Timidity and prejudice prevented this and half measures, as usual, ended in disaster, or at any rate in failure.

Further counsel has been recently invoked from the English Government, and while we write, vigorous attempts are being made to effect a complete re-arrangement of the Japanese currency. It would be premature to adumbrate even the nature of the bases upon which the new system of currency will be placed, but it may be predicted with safety that decimilization will be one of them. At all events, it is undoubtedly true, that the experiences of the last few years have enlight

* An arrangement existing in this country in the days of the Saxon Heptarchy.

ened the minds of the ministers of the Tycoon in respect of the highly important matters of trade, currency, and coinage, and it is therefore more than probable that on these, as on other questions, ideas once reckoned as inadmissible, will be warmly entertained, if not willingly realized.

The currency system of Japan, during the isolation of that country for many centuries from the rest of the world, was constructed on principles and framed with views so entirely different from those adopted by other countries within the circle of general commerce, that it may well be regarded, like other institutions of that strange nation, as a puzzle. The Government was able to control the coinage as it pleased, and there were only two channels by which it was attainable-the Dutch and the Chinese establishments at Nagasaki. Now all this is changed, or in process of transformation, and American coins are in partial circulation throughout Japan.

It will not astonish us very much to learn that a new Imperial Mint, fitted with the best machinery and most complete apparatus which England can furnish, is ordered, or that such an establishment is actually in course of construction at Nagasaki. In this respect, at least, Japan will presently be placed on an equal footing with America and the states of Europe. Who shall predict the future history of the mysterious nation in question, or guess even at the final extent of the moral, intellectual, and physical development of its people?

VOL. XII.-NO. I.

FUNGI OF THE PLAINS OF INDIA.

BY THE REV. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S.

Ir is curious that so little comparatively has been done respecting the fungi of India. A large collection, indeed, was made in Sikkim and the neighbouring countries by Dr. Hooker, but with this exception, and a few from the Neilgherries, Paras Nath, the Northern Himalayas, and other scattered points, scarcely any have been recorded, and indeed, the mycology of few countries had been so little explored. It is, however, quite certain from what I have seen of collections made in Bombay by Dr. H. J. Carter and Capt. J. C. Hobson, and what I have received from my son, Capt. E. S. Berkeley, from the Madras Presidency, that there is a very rich harvest in store.

This of course applies chiefly to mountainous districts. It is not to be expected that the plains of India should be equally prolific, but there are some fine undescribed species to be met with occasionally; and I have already published in the Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, some curious forms from the Deccan. It is, moreover, pretty certain that one or two of our hothouse fungi, as Agaricus rolvaceus and Agaricus Cepastipes, were originally imported from thence or some neighbouring country.

Many years ago, General Hardwicke had a number of drawings of fungi prepared for him at Dum-dum. Etchings of several of these were made on their transmission to Dr. J. E. Gray, but in the midst of numerous zoological engagements, the intention of publishing them was never carried out. They of course comprise a few cosmopolites, as Polyporus lucidus and Schizophyllum commune, and some widely distributed exotics, as Irpex flavus and Dædalea sanguinea; but they are especially interesting, as (together with two of the finest species of the Volvaria sub-genus of Agaricus, known in Europe, as Agaricus volvaceus and A. bombycinus) there are at least two new species of the same division, while amongst European forms such as Agaricus campanulatus and A. papilionaceus, we have others decidedly tropical or sub-tropical, to one or two of which I shall presently draw attention.

I have, however, been induced to look more especially to these fungi of the plains of India, in consequence of receiving some drawings of a few fine species from my son, who is now quartered at Masulipatam, most of which are undescribed, and of the one which has been noticed in several quarters from its singular habitat on the nests of white ants, and its peculiar