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tion, 141; Discontinuous and continuous variation, 141; Congeni-
tal and acquired variation, 142; Determinate variation, 150; The
causes of variation, 154, 156; Variation as related to amphimixis
and parthenogenesis as mutations of de Vries, 154.
CHAPTER X.-HEREDITY.
Hereditary variancy defined, 163; Atavism or reversion, 166;
Telogony, 166; Prenatal influences, 167; Not all transmission is
heredity, 168; Determination of sex, 170; Homologies and analo-
gies, 172; Vestigial organs, 174; Significance of vestigial organs,
181; Heredity and its "laws," 181; Galton's law of ancestral in-
heritance, 184; Mendel's law of alternative inheritance, 187;
Modification of Mendelism, 188.
CHAPTER XI.-INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.
The Lamarckian principles of evolution, 196; Neo-Lamarckism
and Neo-Darwinism, 197; Acquired characters, 198; Effects of use
and disuse, 199; Environmental modifications not inherited, 200;
Examples of non-inheritance of acquired characters, 201; Heredity
unproved, 203; Convergence of characters and parallelism, 204;
Actual effects of environment, 205; Ontogenetic species, 206.
CHAPTER XII.-GENERATION, SEX, AND ONTOGENY.
Generation and ontogeny, 211; Spontaneous generation or abio-
genesis, 212; Simplest modes of generation, 213; Parthenogenesis,
215; Differentiation of reproductive cells, 217; Simplest many-
celled animals, 218; Effects of sex, 220; Sex dimorphism, 221;
The life cycle, 223; The egg, 224; Numbers of young, 225; Em-
bryonic and post-embryonic development, 227; Developmental
stages, 229; Continuity of development, 231; Metamorphosis or
apparent discontinuity, 234; Significance of facts of develop-
ment, 234; Divergence of development, 234; The duration of
life, 240; Death, 241.
CHAPTER XIII.-FACTORS IN ONTOGENY, AND EXPERIMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT.
Processes in ontogeny, 244; Extrinsic and intrinsic factors, 245;
Mechanism versus vitalism, 246; Functions of protoplasm, 247;
Ultimate structure of protoplasm, 248; Theories of organic units,
250; Cell division, 251; Mitosis, or karyokinesis, 252; Somatic and
germ tissues, 257; Reproduction in protozoa, 260; Maturation,
264; Fertilization, 267; Cleavage, 269; Reduction of the chromo-
somes, 269; Preformation versus epigenesis, 276; Examples giving
evidence for each, 278; Mechanism versus vitalism, 281; Artificial
parthenogenesis, 283; Regeneration and regulation, 285.
CHAPTER XIV.-PALEONTOLOGY.
Fossils and thei: significance, 289; Fossil-bearing rocks and
their origin, 292; Geological epochs, 296; Conditions of extinct
life, 297; Divergent types and synthetic types, 299; Parallelism
between geologic and embryonic series, 300; Orthogenesis, 301;
Significance in evolution of the facts of paleontology, 301; Dur-
ation in time of species, 302; History of the vertebrates, 305;
Man, 307.
CHAPTER XV.-GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Zoögeography, 309; Relation of species to geography, 311;
Laws of distribution, 314; Species debarred by barriers, 315 ;
Species debarred by inability to maintain their ground, 315;
Species altered by adaptation to new conditions, 315; Effects of
barriers, 316; Faunas and faunal areas, 316; Remains of animal
life, 322; Subordinate remains of provinces, 323; Faunal areas of
sea, 323; Analogies between language and fauna, 325; Geographic
distribution and the theory of descent, 326.
CHAPTER XVI.-ADAPTATIONS.
The principle of fitness and general adaptations, 327; Origin
of adaptations, 327; Types and classification of species adapta-
tions, 328; Adaptations for food-securing, 329; Adaptations for
self-defense, 330; Adaptations brought about by rivalry, 331;
Adaptations for defense of young, 338; Special adjustments to
surroundings, 343.
CHAPTER XVII.-PARASITISM AND DEGENERATION.
Parasitism defined, 347; Kinds of parasitism, 348; Simple
structure of parasites, 350; Gregarina, 351; Parasitic hemospor-
idia: the cause of malarial fevers, 351; Tapeworm and other flat
worms, 354; Trichina and other round worms, 355; Sacculina, 358;
Parasitic insects, 359; Parasitic vertebrates, 361; Parasitic plants,
362; Degeneration through quiescence, 363; Degeneration through
other causes, 363; Immediate causes of degeneration, 366; Ad-
vantages and disadvantages of parasitism and degeneration, 367.
CHAPTER XVIII.-MUTUAL AID AND COMMUNAL LIFE AMONG ANI-
MALS.
Man not the only special animal, 369; Animal societies, 369;
Commensalism, 370; Symbiosis, 373; Symbiosis between animals
and plants, 376; Social life, gregariousness, 380; Solitary and com-
munal bees and wasps, 383; The honey-bee community, 387; Ants,
391; Termites, 394; Division of labor the basis of communal life,
395; Advantages of communal life, 397.
CHAPTER XIX.-COLOR AND PATTERN IN ANIMALS.
Color among animals, 398; Protection by color, 400; Protection
of color, 402; Significance of color and pattern, 404; Table of in-
sect colors, 405; General protective resemblance, 406; Variabie
protective resemblance, 407; Special protective resemblance, 411;
Warning colors, 416; Terrifying appearances, 418; Directive col-
oration, 419; Recognition marks, 420; Mimicry, 421; Criticism and
general considerations of the theory of protective and mimicking
color pattern, 424.
CHAPTER XX.-REFLEXES, INSTINCT, AND REASON.
Irritability, 426; Nerve cells or fibers, 427; Brain or sensorium,
427; Mechanical reflexes, 428; The tropism theory, 429; The
theories of the method of trial and error, 429; Instincts, 430; In-
stincts of feeding, 432; Instincts of self-defense, 433; Instinct of
play, 435; Climatic instincts, 436; Environmental instincts, 438;
Instincts of courtship, 438; Instincts of reproduction, 439; In-
stincts concerned with the care of the young, 439; Variability of
instinct, 442; Reason, 443; Mind, 448.
CHAPTER XXI.-MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE.
Post-Darwinian conception of humanity, 452; Man's place
among the other animals, 453; Classification of the primates, 455;
Evidences from comparative anatomy of man's relation to lower
animals, 456; Special physiological evidence, 457; Evidence from
embryology, 460; Evidence from paleontology, 461; Conclusions
from ethnology, 462; The earliest man, 464 The genealogy of
man, 466; Theology and Darwinism, 467.
CHAPTER V.-NATURAL SELECTION AND STRUGGLE FOR EXIST-
ENCE: SEXUAL SELECTION.
Natural selection the chief determining agent in adaptation, 57;
Adaptation to conditions of life, 58; The crowd of animals, 59;
Reproduction by multiplication, 59; Numbers of individuals al-
most stationary, 60; Struggle for existence, 60; Discriminate
death, 61; Natural selection, 62; Interdependence of species, 63;
Animal and plant invasions, 64; Doctrine of Malthus, 67; Limits
to the capacity of natural selection, 68; Survival of the existing,
69; Actual standing of Darwinism, 70; Secondary sexual dif-
ferences, 71; Classification of secondary sexual characters, 72;
Theory of sexual selection, 75; Criticisms of the theory, 77; The
sexual selection theory largely discredited, 78.
CHAPTER VI.-ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.
Natural selection and artificial selection, 80; Steps in the pro-
duction of new races, 81; Selected traits quantitative, 81; Race
traits qualitative, 84; Hybridization, 88; Plant amelioration, 90;
Work of Luther Burbank, 90; Panmixia, or cessation of selection,
104; Reversal of selection, 104; Transmission and heredity, 105;
Artificial selection and natural selection, analogous processes,
106; Race-forming by sports, 107.
CHAPTER VII.-VARIOUS THEORIES OF
DESCENT CONTROL.
SPECIES-FORMING AND
Segregation of isolation, 108; Geographic and physiologic iso-
lation, 109; Romanes's championship of physiologic isolation, 109;
The Lamarckian theory of species-transformation, 111; Ortho-
genetic evolution, 112; Species-forming by mutation, 114; The un-
known factors of evolution, 115.
CHAPTER VIII. GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION AND SPECIES-FORMING.
Migration and faunal distribution, 117; Closely related species
not found in the same region, but in contiguous regions, 120; The
American warblers, 120; Barriers, 122; The Hawaiian Drepanidæ,
124; Adaptive and non-adaptive characters, 127; The American
orioles, 128; Species traits not necessarily useful, 129; The persist-
ence of the sufficiently fitted, 130.
CHAPTER IX.-VARIATION AND MUTATION.
Actuality and extent of individual variation, 131; Darwin's
laws of variation, 137; Quetelet's determination that fluctuating variation follows the law of probabilities, 140; Discontinuous varia-