difficult to speak securely. Certainly it is far too much to say of British authors in general, that they" for at least twentyfive years past have enjoyed all the material advantages of copyright in America;" or that they "have learned that their interests are quite safe in the hands of American publishers." Considerable sums have, no doubt, been paid. Men of science, such as Professor Huxley and Professor Tyndall, are especially mentioned as satisfied with the remuneration voluntarily accorded to them by the American publishers; and indeed, to judge by the success of their American dealings, it seems that these inheritors of the future, the men of science, besides having their hold upon the world which is to come, have their hold likewise, lucky fellows, upon the world which now is. Men of letters have not been so fortunate; and the list, given by Mr. Conant, of those to whom a surprising amount of money is paid from America, is to be received with caution. Mr. Tennyson is mentioned; but I hear it said that in truth Mr. Tennyson has received little or nothing from the sale of his works in America. One can at least speak for one's self; and certainly I have never received, from first to last, a hundred pounds from America, though my books have been, I believe, much reprinted there. Mr. Conant will probably say that I am one of those authors whose sale is not remunerative," and does not come to much either there or here. And according to the grand scale by which he weighs things, this may be true; only, if one had not received more than a hundred pounds here or in America either, during the quarter of a century that I have gone up and down, as the mockers say, preaching sweetness and light, one could never have dragged on, even in Grub Street, for all these years.

66

The truth is, the interests of British authors in general cannot well be safe in America so long as the publishers there are free to reprint whom they please, and to pay, of the authors they reprint, whom they please and at what rate they please. The interests of English authors will never be safe in America until the community, as a community, gets the sense, in a higher degree than it has it now, for acting with

delicacy. It is the sense of delicacy which has to be appealed to, not the sense of honesty. Englishmen are fond of making the American appropriation of their books a question of honesty ; they call the appropriation stealing; if an English author drops his handkerchief in Massachusetts, they say, the natives may not go off with it, but if he drops his poem, they may. This style of talking is exaggerated and false; there is a breach of delicacy in reprinting the foreigner's poem without his consent, there is no breach of honesty. But a finely touched nature, in men or nations, will respect the sense of delicacy in itself not less than the sense of honesty. The Latin nations, the French and Italians, have that instinctive recognition of the charm of art and letters which disposes them, as a community, to care for the interests of artists and authors, and to treat them with delicacy. In Germany learning is highly esteemed, and both the government and the community are inclined to treat the interests of authors considerately and delicately. Aristocracies, again, are brought up in elegance and refinement, and are taught to believe that art and letters go for much in making the beauty and grace of human life, and perhaps they do believe it. At any rate they feel bound to show the disposition to treat the interests of artists and authors with delicacy; and shown it the aristocratic government and parliament of England have. expect them to take the trouble for art and letters which the government of France will take; we must not expect of them the zeal which procured for French authors the Belgian Copyright Treaty of 1854, and stopped the Brussels reprints, which drove poor Balzac to despair. Neither in India, nor in Canada, nor yet in the United States, has our aristocratic government interposed on behalf of the author with this energy. They do not think him and his concerns of importance enough to deserve it. Still they feel a disposition to treat his interests with consideration and delicacy; and, so far as it depends on themselves, they show it.

We must not

The United States are a great middleclass community of our own race, free from many obstructions which cramp the middle class in our own country, and

with a supply of humane individuals sown over the land, who keep increasing their numbers and gaining in courage and in strength, and more and more make themselves felt in the press and periodical literature of America. Still on the whole, the spirit of the American community and government is the spirit, I suppose, of a middle-class society of our race, and this is not a spirit of delicacy. One could not say that in their public acts they showed, in general, a spirit of delicacy; certainly they have not shown that spirit in dealing with authors-even with their own. They deal with authors, domestic and foreign, much as Manchester, perhaps, might be disposed, if left to itself, to deal with them; as if, provided a sharp bargain was made and a good thing, as the phrase is, was got out of it, that was all which could be desired, and the community might exult. The worship of sharp bargains is fatal to delicacy; nor is the missing grace restored by accompanying the sharp bargain with an exhibition of fine sentiments. As the great American community becomes more truly and thoroughly civilized, it will certainly learn to add to its many and great virtues the spirit of delicacy, and English authors will be gainers by it. At present they are gainers from another cause. It appears that till lately there was an understanding among American publishers that when one publisher had made terms with an English author for the republication of his work in America, the rest should respect the agreement, and should leave their colleague in possession of the work. But about two years and a half ago, says Mr. Conant, certain parties began to set at naught this law of trade-courtesy. Certain firms began to republish the works of foreign authors, paying nothing for the privilege, and bringing out absurdly cheap editions right on the heels of the authorized reprint, which had cost a large outlay for priority and expense of publication." The ruinous competition thus produced has had the effect, Mr. Putnam tells us in his pamphlet, of" pointing out the absurdity of the present condition of literary property, and emphasizing the need of an international copyright.' It has had the effect, he says, of "influencing a material modification of opinion on the part

of publishers who have in years past opposed an international copyright as either inexpedient or unnecessary, but who are now quoted as ready to give their support to any practicable and equitable measure that may be proposed." Nothing could be more satisfactory.

Accordingly, it is now suggested from America that an international copyright treaty should be proposed by the United States to Great Britain, and, as a first step, that "a commission or conference of American citizens and British subjects, in which the United States and Great Britain shall be equally represented, be appointed respectively by the American Secretary of State and by the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, who shall be invited jointly to consider and present the details of a treaty.'

The details are reserved for the Conference; but it is no secret what the main lines of such a treaty, if it is to be accepted in America, must be. The American author will be allowed, on registering his work, to have copyright in England, and the English author to have copyright in the United States. But the foreigner's work must be manufactured and published in the country, and by a subject or citizen of the country, in which it is registered. The English author's book, therefore, to be protected in America, must be manufactured and published in America as well as in England. He will not be allowed to print and publish his book in England only, and to send his copies over to the United States for sale. The main object, I think, of Mr. Conant's exposition is to make it clear to us on the English side of the water that from this condition the Americans will not suffer themselves to be moved.

English publishers and authors cry out that such a condition is an interference with the author's "freedom of contract." But then they take their stand on the ground that an author's production is property in itself," and that one of the incidents of "property in itself" is to confer on its possessor the right to "freedom of contract" respecting it. I, however, who recognize natural difficulty as setting bounds to ownership, must ask whether the English

author can reasonably expect to be admitted to copyright in America without this condition.

Mr. Froude and Mr. Leonard Courtney both of them seem to think that the question of international copyright is not at all pressing; that opinion in America is slowly ripening for some better and more favorable settlement of copyright than any settlement which it is now likely to accept, and that meanwhile English authors may be well enough content with their present receipts from American publishers, and had better let things stay as they are.

A few English authors may, perhaps, be content enough with their present receipts from America, but to suppose that English authors in general may well be so content is, I think, a very hazardous supposition. That, however, is of little importance. The important question is whether American opinion, if we give it time, is likely to cease insisting on the condition that English books, in order to acquire copyright in America, must be manufactured and published there; is likely to recognize

the English author and publisher as Siamese twins, one of whom is not to be imported without importing the other. Is there any chance, in short, of the Americans, accustomed to cheap English books, submitting to the dearness of English books which is brought about in England by what, in spite of all my attachment to certain English publishers, I must call our highly eccentric, artificial, and unsatisfactory system of book trade? I confess I see no chance of it whatever. There is a mountain of natural difficulty in the way, there is the irresistible opposition of things. Here, where lies the real gist of his contention, I am after all at one with Mr. Conant. The Americans ought not to submit to our absurd system of dear books; I am sure they will not, and, as a lover of civilization, I should be sorry, though I am an author, if they did. 1 hope they will give us copyright; but I hope also they will stick to Michel Lévy's excellent doctrine: "Cheap books are a necessity, and a necessity which need bring, moreover, no loss to either authors or publishers."-Fortnightly Review.

YOKOHAMA, Sept. 12th, 1879.

DURING a long succession of years numerous endeavors have been made to sail from Europe to the Pacific Ocean by the north of America or Asia—or, in other words, to discover the so-called North-west Passage by the north of America, or North-east Passage by the north of Asia. At first these attempts were made with the hope that by these routes sea-communication might be obtained between Europe and the countries of the Pacific. That hope is now abandoned; and the voyages which during later times have been undertaken with the view of discovering the North east or North-west Passages have been for exclusively scientific purposes.

The North-west Passage has been principally explored by Englishmen. The reason of this has been that Franklin, who, in 1845, left England with two vessels, the Erebus and Terror, to

ing three winters there, he learned that some English vessels (belonging to Belcher's expedition, which from the east had endeavored to penetrate the North-west Passage) were lying some hundreds of miles from him. With all his crew, which had suffered consider ably during the three successive winters, and had been subjected to more intense cold than any other Arctic expedition has outlived, M'Clure crossed over the ice to the ships formerly mentioned, and returned to England through Baffin Bay and over the Atlantic Ocean. In this manner he completed the North-west Passage, although 200 miles of the way were accomplished by the use of sledges on the ice instead of by ship. On his return home he received promotion, and was voted by Parliament a national reward of £10,000.

Since M'Clintock's return no expedition has been organized to penetrate the North-west Passage.

Circumnavigation of the north coast of Asia from the Atlantic to Behring Strait has been essayed by no less than thirteen expeditions. Of these, six were sent out by Holland, five from England, one from Austria, and one from Sweden; besides an unsuccessful endeavor to force a passage in an opposite direction, made by the famous Captain Cook, the English circumnavigator, in 1778.

In 1553 three ships were sent out by England: the Bona Esperanza, Captain Willoughby; the Bona Ventura, Captain Chancelor; and the Bona Confidentia, Captain Durforth. These vessels only proceeded as far as Novaya Zemlia.

In 1556 an English expedition went out under Stephen Burroughs, commanding the ship Searchthrift, which at the Kara Gate was compelled by ice to

return.

In 1580 yet another English expedition is mentioned, consisting of two ships-the George, Captain Pet; and the William, Captain Jackman. These vessels entered the Kara Sea, and afterward returned without making any further discoveries.

In 1594 there were sent out from Holland three, in 1595 seven, and in 1596 two vessels, all of which expeditions entered the Kara Sea, but did not proceed any farther east. All these

voyages were shared by the famous William Barentz, the discoverer of Spitzbergen. The latest of these expeditions is remarkable on account of its being compelled to pass the winter on the north coast of Novaya Zemlia, which is the first occasion on record of a Polar expedition spending that season in the Arctic regions.

In 1608 an expedition went out from England, led by Hudson, but was unsuccessful.

In 1610, 1612, and 1625, expeditions were sent out from Holland under Hudson, Van Horn, and Boseman, which succeeded in entering the Kara Sea, where the ice arrested their farther progress, and they were compelled to return. In 1676 England sent out her last expedition for the discovery of the North-east Passage. It consisted of two vessels, under the command of Wood and Hawes, and had no better success than its predecessors.

The want of success attendant on all the expeditions here mentioned appears to be attributable to the circumstance that they always returned too soon. The experiences of later times show that the Arctic Seas are most free from ice during autumn, immediately before it freezes anew. One cannot calculate with any certainty upon the Kara Sea being navigable before the first days of August, and it seems to remain so until the beginning of October, or perhaps even later.

After the English expedition of 1676 there occurs an interval of nearly 200 years without any endeavor to make the North-east Passage. The country that now took up the great question was Austria, which, in 1872, sent out an expedition subsidized by private individuals. The ship bore the name of Admiral Tegetthoff, and was commanded by Lieut. Weytprecht, who was accompanied by Lieut. Payer, as leader of all land excursions. Of the vessel's being frozen in on the west coast of Novaya Zemlia, of its wonderful drifting with the ice, and consequent discovery of a new land, and of the crew's fortunate escape, it is not necessary here to speak, as a work has been recently published in which the whole is admirably described. The attempt made by this expedition to reach the North-east Passage proved unsuccessful, inasmuch as it gained no

point farther than its predecessors with the same object.

A more fortunate issue has been reserved for the thirteenth expedition, organized to circumnavigate the north coast of Asia-the Swedish Arctic Expedition of 1878. Of its equipment and voyage I will now give some account.

When Professor A. E. Nordenskiöld, during the years 1875-76, crossed without difficulty the Kara Sea, which had hitherto been regarded as unnavigable, and penetrated to the mouth of the Yenisei River, which in the former year he sailed up, returning home overland by Siberia, it occurred to him that, with a good steamer, one could sail still farther east along the north coast of Siberia to Behring Strait. In the programme which Professor Nordenskiöld drew out for the promotion of an expedition with the object of sailing through the North-east Passage, he mentions as ground for the possibility of such a voyage, among other reasons, that the warm current which is formed by Siberia's many and powerful rivers, and the direction of which, by reason of the earth's revolution, ought to be from west to east, would be so strong, and would so heat up the water lying nearest the coast, that a navigable stream must be found there during the last summer months-namely, August and September. This opinion has now proved perfectly correct. Supported by the results of the successful voyages of 1875-76 and the opinion just mentioned, Professor Nordenskiöld succeeded in interesting His Majesty the King of Sweden, Mr. Oscar Dickson, merchant, and Mr. Alexander Sibirikoff, a Russian mineowner, in his project. They undertook to defray the expenses of the expedition. Afterward aid was obtained also from the Swedish Government, who liberally allowed £1500 for the repairing of the ship to be used by the expedition, and permitted the work to be executed at the Royal Dock Yards at Carlscrona. The government also made an allowance of Is. 6d. per diem in addition to the regulation pay."

*

* Pay and rations were provided by government only for those of the expeditionary officers (commissioned and non-commissioned) nd men who were in the naval service. The

The steamship Vega was bought for the expedition from a Swedish Sealing Company for the sum of £8500. The Vega is a bark-rigged steamer, built in 1872 for seal and whale fishing in the Arctic Seas, and consequently the exigencies of ice navigation have been duly considered in her construction. The vessel is 500 tons burden, and its dimensions are: extreme length, 150 ft.; breadth, 29 ft.; depth of hold, 16 ft. It is provided with an engine of sixty horse-power, on Woolf's principle, which gives the vessel a speed of seven knots, with a coal-consumpt of 3 cwt. per hour. The Vega, which was not permitted to carry the royal flag, has sailed during the whole expedition under the flag of the Royal Swedish Yacht Club.

After having undergone considerable reparation of masts, sails, hull, and machinery at the Royal Dock Yards, the Vega left Carlscrona on the 22d of June, 1878.

The ship's company was made up of the following officers, commissioned and non-commissioned, and men on leave of absence from the Royal Navy: Lieut. Palander, commander; Lieut. E. Brusewitz; F. A. Pettersson, engineer; R. Nilsson, sailing-master; three firemen, of whom one acted as second engineer; four able seamen and four ordinary seamen ; seven boatmen ; one carpenter.

Besides the crew, the Vega was accompanied from Carlscrona by Lieutenants A. Hovgaard and G. Bove, belonging respectively to the Danish and Italian navy-the former the physiographer of the expedition, the latter its hydrographer. Both of these officers had been residing at Carlscrona to be present at the equipment of the ship. From Carlscrona we went to Copenhagen, from whence almost all the supplies estimated for thirty men for twenty-four months were taken in.

In provisioning the ship, special attention was paid to the regimen which must be followed during an Arctic voyage; consequently the supplies consisted chiefly of preserves. In the choice of provisions, care was taken to obtain

private contributions supplied an extra allowance of £3 IOS. per month to each of the

crew.