(1) EDMUND IRONSIDE, (2) EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, 1016. Edward, d. 1057. 1042-1066. Edmund, d. 1050. Edgar Atheling, d. 1120. CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC AND CELTIC BRITAIN Prehistoric Inhabitants-The Ivernians-The Celts-First Civilised Visitors Cæsar's Expeditions. Britain. Inhabitants. In prehistoric times Great Britain and Ireland formed part of a large peninsula which stretched out into the Atlantic from the northern shores of France and Belgium. In those days the extremes of tempera- Primeval ture were much greater than they are at present, and consequently this peninsula was inhabited during the warm season by the hippopotamus, the bison, and the mammoth, and in the cold weather by the lemming, the reindeer, and the musk - sheep. Among the remains of these creatures, found in the river deposits of the valley of the Thames, flint tools made by the hand of man are occasionally discovered. The makers of these tools were in the lowest state of civilisation, for they were unable to construct handles for Primitive their sharpened flints, and had to hold them in their hands. Their lot was in every way a hard one, and their livelihood most precarious, and they seem to have disappeared along with the now extinct animals among whom they lived. Their place was taken by a somewhat superior race, who used flints of a better shape, and fitted them into handles which they manufactured out of wood or bone. Palæolithic They had also considerable artistic skill, which they showed Men. in ornamenting these weapons with spirited illustrations of the beasts they slew in the chase. Nevertheless, they were in a very low state of culture, for they took no care of their dead; and, though they could clothe themselves with the skins of wild beasts sewn together by means of sinew threads, they had no domestic animals and knew nothing of the arts of spinning and weaving. Years passed away, and, after a period of time of which it is impossible to form any trustworthy calculation, this race, like its predecessors, disappeared for ever from Britain, and is only represented in our day by the Eskimos, who have something of its artistic skill and exhibit the same indifference in dealing with the bodies of their dead. To both these races archæologists give the name of Palæolithic or old stone men; and they describe the former as River-drift men, and the latter as Cave-men. Their place was taken by a third race who came from the south-east, and Neolithic brought with them most of the domestic animals that are Men. now in use, such as the dog, ox, pig, sheep, and goat; they were also acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving, but in consequence of the imperfection of their tools these were only practised by them in a very rude form. Before the date of their arrival, owing to the sinking of the land, the ocean had overflowed the lower levels, and had formed the British Channel, the Irish Sea, and the German Ocean, so that they must have had some knowledge of navigation; while the discovery of their flint works at Brandon and elsewhere proves that they had considerable skill in excavation and mining. To this comparatively civilised people archæologists give the name of Neolithic or newer stone They buried their dead with great care, making a chamber of flat stones in which they placed the body, and erecting over it a pile of earth or of stones, which naturally assumed an elliptic shape, not unlike a pear cut in half lengthwise and placed with its flat surface downwards. These burial places are known as long barrows. From the remains found in them a good idea can be formed of the appearance and physique of the Neolithic men. In stature they were short, the height of the men averaging not more than five feet five inches, and in complexion they were swarthy. The colour of their hair, which was curly, was black; and their eyes, it is believed, were dark. Their skulls, if looked at from above, were oval; their faces, too, had the same shape, the forehead being low, the chin small, and the cheek-bones not protruding. men. For how long a period the Neolithic men of this race remained in undisturbed possession of these lands it is impossible to estimate; but, having regard to the great geological changes that took place in their time, it must have been very considerable. At length, however, their settlements were invaded by a set of new-comers who, by reason of strength, numbers, or skill, were able to drive out the older race and to take forcible possession of the districts where game was the most plentiful The Celtic or where agriculture was most productive. The new-comers are known as Celts. They were the advanced guard of a group of nations who have played a most important part in the history of the world, and are known to ethnologists as the Aryan family. The terms Aryan and Celt are quite different from Palæolithic and Neolithic, Invasion. Ivernians. The former are race names, while the latter simply denote a state of civilisation. For a time both the Celts and the people they displaced were in the Neolithic stage, and consequently when it is needful to distinguish between them it is usual to employ some other term. For this reason we designate the older race by the name of Iberians or Ivernians. The Ivernians are the oldest race which has taken any part in forming the blood of the present European population. As a separate nationality they are only represented at most by the Basques of the Pyrenees, and there is some doubt even about this. It is, however, certain that at one time they were spread over all Europe west of the Rhine and the Rhone, and over Switzerland; and their blood has largely mingled with that of their Aryan conquerors. Where the Aryans came from is a matter of great dispute. Some cling to the theory that the original home of the race was in Central Asia, on The Aryans. the upland slopes which lead to the Himalayas; others believe that the true mother-land is to be found near the shores of the Baltic, on the flats of Pomerania, or among the marshes of Sweden. However this may be, the Aryans have now established themselves in all, or almost all, the temperate regions of the globe; for there belong to this race not only the main stock of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans of the ancient world, but a considerable portion of the Hindoos, and of modern Europeans, the French, Spaniards, Germans, Slavs, and Italians, besides the inhabitants of the British Isles and their descendants in America, South Africa, and Australia. Climate and the continual mingling of their blood with that of other races have long since modified the aspect of the Aryans, and made it very hard to say which of these nations has preserved most of the original characteristics of the stock. The Celts The Celts. It is not difficult to distinguish between the two races. were light of limb and tall of stature, having indeed an average height of five feet eight inches, or three inches taller than that of the Ivernian men. The outline of their skulls, viewed from the same position, was round. Their foreheads were high, their cheek-bones prominent, and their eyes, it is believed, were blue. Like the Neolithic men, the Celts were in the habit of burying their dead with reverence; but, unlike them, they covered the grave with a barrow shaped like a cone or a bell. Some of the bronze-using men, however, made a practice of burning their dead, and the two methods of burial were apparently carried on side by side. This difference of practice may have been caused by a difference in religion, or possibly the reason may be connected with the arrival of a new race. The language of the |