of more than three thousand stars, "were more accurate than any determined in the next fifty years, and whose selection and nomenclature have served as basis to every catalogue since that time". Cotemporary with Flamstead was Edmund Halley, who indeed at the age of sixty-four became his successor, accounted second only to Newton. Halley published in 1699, a catalogue of the Southern Stars, being the result of observations made at St. Helena, where he resided two years. He was moreover the first to predict the return of a comet, since called by his name. The observations made by these two men laid the foundation for modern astronomy, and the consequent improvement of navigation.

În 1619, Dr. Harvey gave to the world his discovery of the circulation of the blood, which was however received by the profession throughout Europe, with incredulity. Still an impulse was given to the study of facts rather than theories, and Dr. Sydenham, 1624-89, by his careful observations, may be said to have commenced a new era in medical science. Medical botany also received attention, so early as 1632 a "Physic Garden" was founded and endowed at Oxford Sir Hans Sloane, 1660-1753, gave much attention to the same subject, and during his travels made an extensive collection of plants. In 1720, he made the Apothecary's Company a present of the freehold of the Botanic Garden at Chelsea.

Towards the close of the period, steam comes into notice as a motive power. In 1663 the Marquis of Worcester, the same who, as the Earl of Glamorgan, had figured in connexion with the Irish catholics during the reign of Charles I. published his " Century of Inventions", in which he professed to be able to make a ship sail against wind and tide. He moreover exhibited a species of steam-engine which would raise water to the height of forty feet. But it was not till 1698, that steam was applied to a practical purpose. In that year Captain Savery, to secure the benefit of his invention, obtained an act entitled An act for the Encouragement of a New Invention by Thomas Savery, for raising water, and occasioning Motion to all sorts of Mill works by the impellant force of fire". This engine was applied only to raise water from inconsiderable depths, and did not prove on the whole very effective. Towards the close of the reign of Anne, a more effective engine was constructed by Thomas Newcomen of Dartmouth. This, from the mode of securing the descent of the piston, was termed the atmospheric engine, and soon came into general use in the mining districts.

Section VI. The Fine Arts.

1. ARCHITECTURE. The introduction of unmixed Italian architecture into England, marks the early part of the seventeenth century; the line is now drawn between the ancient and modern styles. Classical architecture in England outshone, for a time, that of any contemporaneous school in Europe. This is attributed to the genius of Inigo Jones, born in London, and schooled in Italy. During the early part of his professional career he was engaged in buildings of the mixed style which then prevailed. From the time of his appointment to the office of Surveyor of Public Buildings, his fame and practice rapidly increased. In 1619 he began the banquetting-house

at Whitehall, considered one of the most beautifully proportioned buildings in Europe; this was but a fragment, in length one-tenth of what was proposed as a new palace. Jones designed the Church of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, the first and "most successful attempt to adapt the pure and unbroken form of an ancient temple to the purposes of a modern church".

The Fire of London brought into action the talents of Sir Christopher Wren, whose variety of knowledge is attested both in design and construction, and the universality of his genius in the multiplicity and magnitude of his works. The same hand produced the noblest of modern cathedrals, the largest palace, the highest historical monument, numerous public and private buildings, besides twentyfive London churches-"no man born on our side of the Alps, has imitated with so much success, the magnificence of the palace-like churches of Italy".

Wren was followed by Vanbrugh, both architect and dramatist, who extended the palace at Greenwich, and built among other noble mansions, Castle Howard (Yorkshire), and Blenheim House (Oxford). Gibbs and Hawksmoor followed, the latter a pupil of Wren's, the former a native of Aberdeen. Gibbs was the architect of the church of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, and the Radcliffe Library at Oxford; and Hawksmoor of several London churches, and among others, St. George's, Bloomsbury, and St Mary's, Woolnoth, in Lombard Street. 2. SCULPTURE. It was about the year 1615, that the Earl of Arundel began to collect statues and other works of art, and to communicate to his country the advantage they were calculated to produce. Though dispersed during the Great Rebellion, they were not lost to the country, the statues and inscribed marbles are at Oxford, and the busts at Wilton. What improvement took place in this department of art was due principally to foreigners and the patronage of the court, more especially perhaps to the good taste of Charles I. Nicholas Stone, master-mason to James I. executed several monuments, the best of which is thought to be that of Sir Francis Hollis, in Westminster Abbey. In the reign of Charles I. several foreign sculptors appeared in England, and executed works in bronze, the most celebrated being the equestrian statue at Charing Cross, which after being sold for old metal was replaced about 1678, the purchaser having ran the risk of preserving it whole, though by the condition of sale he should have broken it up. The reign of Charles II. possessed two sculptors of eminence, Cibber and Gibbons. Cibber was a native of Holstein, and is principally remembered for the bas-reliefs on the London Monument, and the two figures personifying raving and melancholy madness, which formerly surmounted the gateway of Old Bedlam. Gibbons of Rotterdam executed the marble statue of Charles II. for the Royal Exchange, and the bronze figure of James II. in the Privy Gardens. He is however best known for his carvings in wood, which he carried to a perfection that has never been equalled. Examples of his beautiful work are to be found at Burleigh and Chatsworth, and in the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral. After the Revolution there is little to notice, Bird distinguished himself by his monument to Dr. Busby in Westminster Abbey, which however is so superior to anything he did afterwards, as to raise the suspicion that it was not his own work. His monument to Sir Cloudesly Shovel, in the same place, is said to approach "the bathos of art".

3. PAINTING. In this period was laid the foundation of those noble collections of paintings which exist in England, though the principal artists that won honors in this country were foreigners. The Earl of Arundel, before referred to, collected pictures, and the famous Duke of Buckingham purchased of Rubens (of Cologne, 1517-1640) his collection of Italian paintings for £10,000. Charles I. formed a valuable collection, in which were the cartoons of Raphaelle (of Italy, 1183-1520), besides many other works of the great masters; as Titian (of Italy, 1477-1576), and Corregio (of Modena, 1494-1534). In Whitehall alone, there were nearly five hundred paintings, which the king watched over with almost religious care. Both Rubens, and Vandyke (of Antwerp, 1599-1642) were patronised by Charles; the latter employed principally on portraits, the former to paint the ceiling of the banqueting house, Whitehall. The Commonwealthmen declared war against the fine arts, and it was ordered by the parliament that all pictures and statues, not being superstitious should be sold, and that all pictures containing representations of the second person in the Trinity, or of the Virgin Mary, should be forthwith Some of the leaders contrived to evade the destruction ordered, but the sales went on till stopt by order of Cromwell, who himself had bought the Cartoons for £300. Many of the single pieces in the royal collection brought prices which, under the circumstances, were remarkable, reaching in some cases as high as £2000. Though the English at this time did not excel in the larger works, in miniatures they had the pre-eminence. After the Restoration, several foreigners of mediocrity found employment in England, in painting ceilings and staircases, examples of which remain at the British Museum, Burleigh and Chatsworth. Lely (of Westphalia, 1617-80) attained eminence in Charles II. as a painter of portraits, and Knellar (of Lubeck, 1648-1723) followed in the same department of art; the former was famous for the delicacy and softness of his flesh, the latter for sacrificing his reputation to his inordinate love of

money.

Before the Stuart Period, England could boast of engravers deemed worthy of employment in Flanders then famous for its arts and learning. The art seems to have declined in this country, for in Charles I., we find it in the hands of foreigners, of whom the most celebrated was Hollar (of Prague, 1607-1677), introduced into England by the Earl of Arundel. His maps, plans, views, churches, and monuments number more than eight hundred, and are still considered a mine of exact information. The period of the Commonwealth was "illustrated by the most exquisite coinage which has appeared in modern times", the work of Simon, a native engraver. To Prince Rupert was at one time, attributed the discovery of the art of mezzotint, it is however now clear that he merely introduced it into England, and perhaps did something for its improvement.

4. MUSIC. James I., though without any taste for music himself, had wit enough to raise the salaries of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, of which Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625), "one of the rarest musicians of his time", was the organist. In the same reign, a musical professorship was established at Oxford by William Hayther, a gentleman of the chapel royal. Charles I. has some reputation as an instrumentalist, but while he patronised the art, he gave great and

lasting discouragement to native talent. It is true, he appointed Dr. Child to the royal chapel, but for secular music he appointed an Italian for "Master", and subsequently gave his patronage to French musicians. "From his time to the present, a large majority of the British nobility and persons of fortune have followed the unpatriotic and baneful example of that prince." The Commonwealth proved unfavorable to this art, and yet there were a few who quietly enjoyed the solace of music. Milton was an instrumentalist, and Cromwell found a pleasure in listening to the great organ which had been removed from Magdalen College, Oxford to Hampton Court; the Protector paid his organist £100 a-year.

At the Restoration, one of the earliest measures was to re-establish the choral service in the cathedrals, in doing which great difficulty was found in replacing the organs and obtaining a staff of competent musicians. In the chapel royal, Charles introduced for a time a band of twenty-four violins, of which Evelyn speaks in angry terms, "instead of the ancient, grave, and solemn wind-music accompanying the organ, was introduced a concert of twenty-four violins between every pause, after the French fantastical light way, better suiting a tavern or playhouse than a church". This period produced some musicians of eminence, Purcell "the greatest of English composers", Blow, and Child; and many amateurs were to be found, both skilful in the art and learned in the science. Of the latter class was Sir Francis North, chief justice of the Common Pleas, who in 1677, published a "Philosophical Essay of Music", a work" which justly entitles him to be considered as the father of musical philosophy in England". Indeed, the English are said to have been, at this time, a more musical people than ever they were afterwards, for almost every person of education could sing by scale and play upon some instrument. Towards the close of Charles's reign, French music gave way to Italian under the patronage of Catherine of Braganza. After the Revolution, this art was less encouraged than before, though Dr. Croft, 1677-1727, is said to have had no superior as a composer of ecclesiastical music.

Section VII. Growth of the Army and Navy.

1. THE ARMY. Charles VII. of France (1422-61) was the first sovereign in Europe to establish a standing army; England from its insular position adopted this institution much later than the countries on the continent. In this country, it is usual to go back to Henry VII, to find anything analogous to permanent soldiers. That monarch embodied a band of fifty chosen archers for a personal guard, called Yeoman of the Guard"; to these Henry VIII. added fifty others, called at first "Spears", and on their reorganization by the same sovereign, "Gentlemen Pensioners". Nothing further was done till the formation by Charles I. of a troop of guards, from gentlemen of quality, whose servants constituted a second troop. A third troop was formed for the queen, and with the other two subsequently formed into a regiment of "Life Guards".

When the Restoration took place, the army of the Commonwealth was disbanded, but the king's counsellors pressed on him the unsettled state of the kingdom, and a resolution was taken to keep up a small force. Out of the wreck of the army that had fought in the royal

cause during the civil war, and which during the Commonwealth saw some service on the continent, Charles selected a number of cavalier gentlemen, from which source sprang the First and Second Regiments of Life Guards. At the disbanding of the Commonwealth army, two regiments were re-embodied, Monk's regiment of foot, since called the Coldstream Guards, because they quitted their head-quarters at Coldstream to restore the monarchy; and Cromwell's regiment of horse guards, which being re-embodied under the Earl of Oxford, and wearing blue coats and cloaks, obtained the name of Oxford Blues. Another regiment was organised out of the forces which had served under the Duke of York in the Spanish Netherlands; this became the First Regiment of Foot Guards, but since the battle of Waterloo has been known as the Grenadier Guards. The regular army in Charles II. amounted to about five thousand men; in the next reign it was augmented to thirty thousand, being designed as the instrument by which James proposed to effect his purpose.

A military writer remarks: "The reign of Charles II. may be said to constitute an era in the military history of England, not only for the establishment of a regular army, but for the abolition of feudal tenures by Act of Parliament, while a new and better organisation was given to the defensive force of the kingdom. In this act the King's right to command the militia was clearly recognised; and all housekeepers and other substantial persons, were ordered to provide for the service of that militia, men and horses, arms, ammunition, and pay, each in proportion to the amount of his real or personal

estate.

"The arms, offensive and defensive, which these substantial persons' were required to provide, varied according to the liabilities of individuals. Such as sent a horseman to the place of muster supplied him with a breast and back piece, and a pot, or iron skull-cap, a sword, and a case of long-barrelled pistols; while his horse was furnished with a great saddle or pad, having bars or straps for affixing the holsters, a bit and bridle, with a pectoral and crupper. The footmen were either musketeers or pikemen; the former wielded a musket, having a barrel not under three feet in length, with a collar of bandoliers (small wooden cases, each containing sufficient powder for a musket-charge); and the latter carried an ashen pike, not under sixteen feet long (head and foot included), with a back, breast, and head piece; and both carried swords. When these levies were called out in a state of preparation for active service, the musketeer was obliged to show half a pound of powder, half a pound of bullets, and three yards of match; while the horseman produced his quarter of a pound of powder, and the same weight of bullets, provided at the expense of the person who supplied the soldier.

"The arms of the Guards at this period underwent an important change. Their matchlocks were discontinued, though used in regiments of infantry to a later period; and they were supplied instead with the snaphance, or flint and steel firelock. The bayonet, too, which had been adopted generally in the French army in 1671, was now first given to the English Dragoons, and the grenadier companies of the Foot Guards. But it differed from the modern bayonet in this important particular-that when fixed, or screwed, it disabled the musket from further service as a fire-arm; the handle of the dagger