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professor of rhetoric and oratory, and, at one time, master of Trinity College. He stood amongst the foremost as a Latin scholar, and Queen Elizabeth, when asked which she preferred, Hadden or Buchanan, replied-" Buchananum omnibus antepono; Haddonum, nemini postpono." He was the principal compiler of the "Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum." He died in 1572.

(8.) MR. JOHN ASTELY, or ASTERLY, Master of the Jewel House, was the author of a treatise on Riding, entitled-" The Art of Riding, set forth in a Briefe, with a due Interpretation of certain places, alledged out of Zenophon and Gryson, very expert and excellent Horsemen: wherein also the true use of the Hand by the said Gryson's Rules and Precepts is shown." 1584.

(9.) Mr. Bernard Hampton was educated at Cambridge, and clerk of the Privy Council.

(10.) M. NICASIUS was a Greek of Constantinople, who visited England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, partly to promote a union between the Greek Church and the Church of England, and partly to collect what charity he could for the distressed Christians of his own country.

(11.) ROGER ASCHAM, in respect to scholarship, knowledge of the world, and conversational talent, was second to no one in the goodly company of eminent and learned men assembled that day in the chambers of Sir William Cecil.

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(12.) BEATING was early recognized as an essential part of an English institution of learning, and neither prince or pew was spared the salutary infliction of the rod. Archbishop Anselm protested against its use in 1070, as calculated to 66 convert men into brutes," and, in the "Paston Letters," Mrs. Agnes Paston instructs Mr. Greenfield, tutor of her son, "to truly belash him until he will amend." In the same curious collection will be found the articles by which the Earl of Warwick, when he took charge of Henry VI., binds the Earl of Gloucester and the Council to stand by him "in chastising him, (the young king,) in his defaults," although he should "in conceit of his high and royal authority "loathe the chastening." We shall have more to say on this topic hereafter. (13.) SIR THOMAS SMITH, for a time Provost of Eton College, and university orator at Cambridge, was born in 1514, and educated at Queen's College, and cooperated with Sir John Cheke in introducing the pronunciation of Greek, as advocated by Erasmus. He was author of a treatise on a reformation of the spelling of the English languge, entitled "De recta et emendata lingua Anglica Scripture." In 1548 he was advanced to the office of secretary of state, and knighted. In 1578 he was the author of an act of Parliament, by which the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the two colleges of Eton and Winchester, were authorized to require in their leases that a third part of the old rent should be paid in kind; a quarter of wheat for each 6s. 8d, or a quarter of malt for every 58; or that the lessee should pay for the same according to the price that wheat and malt should be sold for, in the market next adjoining to the respective colleges, on the market day before the rent comes due.

(14.) SIR JOHN CHEKE, whom Ascham characterizes as "one of the best scholars" and "the conningest masters of his time," was born in Cambridge in 1514, was educated at St. John's College, which he afterward, as professor, assisted to build up to be the chief seat of learning, especially in Greek, and where he trained such scholars as Cecil, Ascham, Hadden, Bill, &c.; was entrusted with the education of Prince Edward, by whom, when he became King, he was knighted. made Privy Councilor, and one of his Secretaries of State;

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served in several educational and ecclesiastical commissions; promoted the appointment of good men to office; became involved in the civil and theological troubles of his times; and died in 1557, at an age when his country had most to expect from his learning and experience. He was a great promoter of the study of Greek, and its correct pronunciation, and labored with his friend, Sir Thomas Smith to give prominence to the Saxon element in the English language, and to rid its orthography of many of its anomalies. For this purpose he made a new translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, in which he strove to use only English Saxon words. See Strype's Life of Sir J. Cheke.

(15.) JOHN STURM, or STURMIUS, was born at Schleiden, near Cologne, was educated at Liege, Louvain and Paris, and for forty-five years was rector of the gymnasium and college at Strasburg, which he established and made the best classical school in Europe. He was much consulted in the drafting of school-codes, and in the organization of gymnasia, and his "Plan for organizing institutions of learning," his "Classic Letters," addressed to the teachers of his own school, and his editions of classic authors, entitle him to a prominent place in the history of "Pedagogics." Raumer, in his "History of the Science and Art of Teaching," devotes a chapter to Sturm's system of education.

(16.) THEAGES is not considered by many scholars worthy of Plato, and its authorship is attributed to Antipater, the teacher of Panatius, and the disciple of Diogenes of Babylon.

Theages desired "to become a wise man," to the great trouble of his father, Demodocus, who resorts to Socrates for counsel. Socrates replies in the language of the proverb, applied to those who came to counsel the oracles "Counsel, Demodocus, is said to be a sacred thing;" and then adds, "If then any other consultation is sacred, this is so, about which you are now considering. For there is not a thing, about which a person may consult, more divine than about the instruction of himself and of those related to him." After probing the young man by questions, Socrates concludes to receive him into his companionship.

(17.) Plato in the Dialogues on the Republic, exhibits the misery of man let loose from law, and a general plan for making him subject to law, as the sure way of perfecting his nature. In the seventh dialogue, from which Ascham quotes, Plato unfolds the province of a good early education, in turning the eyes of the mind from the darkness and uncertainty of popular opinion, to the clear light of truth, and points out some of the uses of mathematics and gymnastics, in quickening and enlarging the apprehension, and inuring to intense application. In this connection he asserts:

"Every thing then relating to arithmetic and geometry, and all the previous instruction which they should receive before they learn dialectics, ought to be set before them while they are children, and on such a plan of teaching, that they may learn without compulsion. Why so? Because, said I, a free man ought to acquire no training under slavery; for the labors of the body when endured through compulsion do not at all deteriorate the body; but for the soul, it can endure no compulsory discipline. True, said he. Do not then, said I, my best of friends, force boys to their learning; but train them up by amusement, that you may be better able to discern the character of each one's genius."

This, too, was the doctrine of Quintilian, in Inst. Lib. 1. c. 1, 20:-Nam id in primis cavere oportebit, ne studia, qui amare nondum potest, oderit et amaritu dinem semel perceptam etiam ultra rudes annos reformidet.

IX. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF JOHN STURM.

FROM THE GERMAN OF KARL VON RAUMER.*

JOHN STURM, or Sturmius, as his name was latinized, one of the best classical scholars and school teachers of his time, was born at Schleiden, in the Eiffel, near Cologne, in 1507. His father was steward to Count Manderscheid, with whose sons the young John was educated until his fourteenth year, when he went to the school of the Hieronymians at Liege, and hence, in 1524, to the University of Louvain, where he spent three years in studying, and two more in teaching. Of his parents and early teachers he ever spoke with gratitude and veneration, and his mother he characterizes as a "superior woman." Among his fellow-students was Sleidanus, the historian, and Andreas Bersalius, the anatomist.

In connection with Rudiger Rescius, the professor of Greek at Louvain, Sturm established a printing press, from which Homer and other Greek and Roman classics were issued. With copies of these books for sale, and for use by students, he removed to Paris, in 1529, where he studied medicine, read public lectures on logic, and the Greek and Roman classics, got married, and had private scholars from Germany, England, and Italy. Here he established a high reputation as a scholar and teacher, and corresponded with Erasmus, Melancthon, Bucer, and others. Such was his reputation as a classical scholar and teacher that, when the magistrates of the city of Strasburg decided

*Geschichte der Padagogik. The biographical portion of Von Raumer's chapter is abridged, and that portion which treats of the theological controversies of the times, and particularly of the differences between the German, and the Swiss, and French reformers, with the former of whom Sturm sympathized, and to some extent coöperated, is altogether omitted. Sturm was avowedly a Lutheran, and the Calvinist charged him with absenting himself from the communion table and from church for twenty years.

†The Hieronymians were a regular order of canons, or clergy, employed in teaching. founded by Gerhard Grovte, in 1373. They wore a white dress, with black scapula, and were most numerous and efficient in the Netherlands, where they originated. They were also known as Hieronymites, Hermits of St. Hieronymus, Collatian Brothers, Gregorians, or Brethren of Good Will. The instruction in their schools was partly elementary and partly classical. Their scholars learned to copy MSS., to read and write, were diligently drilled in speaking Latin, and in the study of the Scriptures, the Fathers, and a few of the classics, especially Cicero. See Raumer, Hist. of Ped., Vol. 1, p. 64: Cramer, Hist. of Ed. in the Netherlands, p. 260, et seq. It was at Liege, from the Hieronymians, that Sturm received the educational principle which he afterward embodied in his own school at Strasburg," Pietas sapiens et eloquens est finis studiorum."

A theological school was proposed in 1501, but not established till 1534. In 1524, a number

to establish a gymnasium, he was earnestly solicited to organize and conduct it as Rector. He accordingly, in 1537, removed to that city, where he labored for forty-five years as a teacher, and, by his example, correspondence and publications, was greatly influential in introducing a better organization and methods of instruction into the schools of Europe. His plan of organizing a gymnasium or classical school was drawn up in 1538, and published under the title of "The best mode of opening institutions of learning." The development of this plan was exhibited in Letters which he addressed to the teachers of the various classes of his Gymnasium, in 1565, and in an account of the examination of the school, published in 1578.

On the 7th of December, 1581, by a decree of the city council, Sturm was deposed from the Rectorate, "on account of his advanced age, and for other reasons," viz.: publishing a pamphlet, in which he opposed the dominant religious majority in some of the theological disputes of the day. He was soon after attacked with blindness, and, worn out by the labors of a toilsome life, and weakened by age, and pinched by poverty incurred by his generosity to those who fled to him from persecution, he died in 1589, in the eighty-second year of his age, and was buried in the church-yard of St. Gallus, in Strasburg. Sturm was a man of medium size, dark and ruddy complexion, firm features, long beard, clear and well-modulated voice, honorable presence, and a somewhat slow gait. He was amiable and dignified, in conversation earnest and courteous, in action decided and prompt, and industrious both in his public and private relations. He was ever keeping pace with those about him, learning Hebrew, for instance, in his fifty-ninth year, and inspiring his teachers with his own enthusiasm. He enjoyed the respect of the emperors Charles V., Ferdinand I., and Maximilian II., as well as of Queen Elizabeth, of England. His fame as a teacher and educator was European, and his school was a Normal School of classical instruction. His pupils were among the "men of mark" throughout Germany. At one time there were two hundred noblemen, twenty-four counts and barons, and three princes under his instruction; and, besides organizing directly many classical schools, his pupils rose to be head-masters of many more, and his principles were embodied in the School Code of Wurtemberg in 1559, and in that of Saxony in 1580, and in the educational system of the Jesuits.

of elementary schools were instituted, which were placed under the direction of school inspectors, of whom the preacher, James Sturm, was one, and through whose influence John Sturm was induced to remove to Strasburg. The gymnasium organized in 1537 was endowed with the privileges of a College, in 1567, by Emperor Maximilian II., and John Sturm was appointed its Rector in perpetuo.

STURM'S SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION.

Whoever clearly conceives a distinct object of pursuit, and brings perseverance, intelligence and tact to bear upon its attainment, will be sure, at least, to do something worthy of note; and especially so, when, at the same time, he falls in with the tendency and the sentiments of the age in which he lives. This is, above all, true of school reformers. If they know not what they would have, if they have no definite aim in view, it is impossible for us to speak with any propriety of the methods which they may have taken to reach their aim. Their course is wavering and uncertain, and they inspire distrust instead of confidence. But Sturm was no wavering, undecided, purposeless man. With firm step he advanced toward the realization of a definitely conceived ideal; an ideal, too, which, in greater or less distinctness, floated before the minds of most of his contemporaries, and which was regarded by them as the highest aim of mental culture. Hence, he enjoyed a widely extended and an unquestioning confidence. This, his ideal, Sturm has defined for us in numerous passages; and it is our first duty to examine it, if we wish to judge of his method.

"The end to be accomplished by teaching," says he, "is three-fold; embracing piety, knowledge and the art of speaking." In another place, he expresses himself thus; "A wise and persuasive piety should be the aim of our studies. But, were all pious, then the student should be distinguished from him who is unlettered, by scientific culture and by eloquence, (ratione et oratione.) Hence, knowledge, and purity and elegance of diction, should become the aim of scholarship, and toward its attainment both teachers and pupils should sedulously bend their every effort." What description of knowledge, and what species of eloquence Sturm had in view, we shall now proceed to inquire.

The boy should be sent to school,-so he insists,-in his sixth ar seventh year. His school education proper should occupy nine years, or until he is sixteen; it should then be succeeded by a more independent style of culture. Lectures should be substituted for recitation, and that for five years, or until he is in his twenty-first year.

The Gymnasium included nine classes, corresponding with the nine, years that the pupil was to spend there. Seven of these years Sturm assigned to a thorough mastery of pure, idiomatic Latin; the two. that remained were devoted to the acquisition of an elegant style; and to learn to speak with the utmost readiness and propriety, was the problem of the five collegiate years. During the first seven years

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