to survey that progress in its degrees, and, when arrived at a remarkably high point, to bring afterward the different conditions of other nations to view, interweaving them with the former picture, and thus to compose a totality of those intermixed developments, to him a synchronistical treatment of history remains sterile. Therefore, scarcely even the pupils of the first class, in our higher seminaries of learning, can be considered as sufficiently prepared for it. 13. Who has recommended the biographical method?

It may be said the entire modern school has unanimously recognized it as the best and most suitable for beginners. For this grade, nearly all modern methodic histories contain only such material as is fit for biographical instruction. In higher schools, a biographical course has been arranged in the lowest classes, and approved everywhere by the authorities.

14. Who has recommended the regressive method?

Dr. Kapp, in his general work, "Scientific school instruction as a whole," (der wissenschaftliche Schulunterricht als ein Ganzes,) Hamm, 1834, is one of the first. Dr. Jacobi has recommended it, especially for the history of the native country, "Outlines of a new method, &c.," (Grundzüge einer neuen methode, etc.,) Nürnberg, 1839.

15. What is the origin of the chronological method?

From time immemorial scarcely any other method has been used in Germany than this; now joining synchronism, now following the ethnographical principle. Until this hour it prevails in the majority of schools, of classical histories, and of text-books on history. It has been modified by many competent historians and teachers, for the various purposes of elementary, burgher, and real schools, and gymnasia. Some introduce it by mythology, others by a biographical course. Some give the first place to ancient history, others to national history; others, again, attempt to suit the various wants, by a particular partition of the material, by all sorts of principles of treatment, by accommodation to the different stages of life, or by raising certain historical pictures, (characterbilder,) above the general course of history.

16. Who has tried to introduce the grouping method?

Stiehl, (now privy-counselor,) has proposed, in a little book, "Instruction in the history of our country in the elementary schools," (Der vaterländische Geschichtsunterricht in unsern Elementarschulen,) Coblenz, 1842, to promote instruction in the history of the fatherland by a vivid transfer into the midst of national life, by historical facts grouped around a national calendar, with the exclusion of systematic chronology, and by presenting the coherent material well-wrought together in one mould; besides, making the whole more fruitful by commmunicating important patriotic documents and like best patriotic songs. In a different way, Dr. Haupt, in the preface to his "History of the World, on Pestalozzi's principles," (Weltgeschichte nach Pestalozzi's grundsätzen, etc.,) Hildburghausen, 1841, recommends a grouping of the entire history after certain categories of the material, (home, society, state, nation, religion, science, and art,) in each of which the suitable material of all time is comparatively placed beside each other.

17. What are the most recent tendencies concerning historical instruction?

On the one hand, it is recommended to interweave classical sentences and good historical poems, in order to vivify historical instruction by dramatizing it, and so impress better the chief epochs, especially of natural history, by story and song. On the other hand, for the sake of concentration, various combinations

with geography, natural knowledge and religion, and even with the hymn book, are recommended. An endeavor has also been made, to simplify the material for common wants, by cutting off the less fertile portions, particularly of national history, and to compensate for this by entering deeper into some chief characters and events. This has fixed attention more and more on historical characterbilder, which are now in various works, at the teacher's command, to be used chiefly for a good Christian and national education. Particularly, it is endeavored to view more closely the civilization of nations, especially of one's own; to give more Christian and dogmatic matter; to introduce the youth rather more into the historical development of the social orders and classes than into the history of the world; and to find one's own account in the execution. For each of these tendencies, respectable voices have been heard.

18. What is to be thought of these tendencies?

It is a pedagogical mistake to do too many things at once. The teacher of history must abstain from teaching at the same time catechism and natural sciences; they do not belong to history. Further, the hymn book can not be considered as a suitable guide for instruction in national history, to say nothing of the obscure origin of many songs in it. To interweave many sayings of a celebrated man, even to make it sometimes the centre of the narration, may be quite suitable. It may be very effective to celebrate a great hero or event of history, besides elevating and improving description by a good song also. But, more important is it to simplify, and to enter deeply into the chief points, and therewith to nourish earnestly a patriotic and religious sense,-which may, no doubt, be much aided by good national "characterbilder." A prominent regard for the orders of society is not only difficult but even not without danger. To save better care than hitherto of the progress of civilization, and to avoid subjective tendencies, particularly in modern history, will be approved by all sensible persons.

19. How far is geography to be cared for in teaching history?

Up to the present time, all attempts to combine, after a definite plan, all his torical with all geographical instruction, have nearly failed. The common way in which it is done now, is either to premise to the history of the various nations and states the related geographical matter, or occasionally to insert it in fragments. In this way, of course, geography has not its degree; because for many geographical objects there are no points of reference and connection. Further, it would be necessary to explain at every time only the corresponding geogra phy of that period, so that a comparison with the geography of the present time would be needed,-a necessity that has always great difficulties for young people. The plan by which certain geographical sections alternate with historical ones, (the former analytically, the latter chronologically,) no one would consider as a praiseworthy combination. In whatever way it is done, it is indispensable to make the geographical field of history as clear as possible. Instruction in history can neither be tied to a specific plan of teaching geography, nor can it aim at an appropriate and complete finishing of the latter. The same is true vice versa.

20. What is the value of historical poetry in teaching history?

So far as historical poetry keeps within the sanctuary of truth, its artistical glorification of characters and deeds is unquestionably of high value, and the appropriate use of it can not be too much recommended. But, as soon as it leaves truth, and idealizes, poetically, the historical persons and their exploits, it

is no longer of importance for instruction, even if the poems be of great poetical value.

21. Why are the historical dates so valuable?

It may be asserted, without hesitation, that, without fixing the dates, instruction and a ready knowledge of history is impossible. As long as the pupil is not yet conscious of the distinction of time in its practical worth, the general outlines of the historical event may be sufficient; but, as soon as that consciousness is awake, the event and person must be connected with the date, in order that the former may be better remembered, better understood in its position of time, and better distinguished from related phenomena. The dates are the most simple monitors of memory, and can never be entirely omitted, though they ought to be limited for children, and sometimes to be made round numbers, for the sake of memory. They help to regulate the material in the easiest way, and join the natural development of events; nay, a sensible arrangement of them often aids the understanding of related events better than long expositions could do.

22. What is the didactic value of good historical pictures, maps and tables? In teaching, very much depends on making history intuitive and lively. It is, therefore, desirable to aid the oral address by appropriate means. Such are historical pictures and tableaux, since they represent often the historical action more clearly in one moment than the most copious description by words. Of course, they must be true and of artistical worth. Historical maps aid best the perception of the geographical extent of a historical transaction, and often afford the most natural representation of its results upon the position of nations and states to one another on the globe. Tables facilitate both a short review of the chief events in chronological and synchronistical order, and a firmer impression on the memory, by bringing to view the rise, fusion, separation, and falling of nations, etc. Also they can best represent, in side columns, the different movements of development at the same time in state, church, science, and art.

23. In what respects does private reading further historical knowledge ? Since it is impossible to treat in school every thing desirable for youth, it is very important that appropriate reading in private should assist to complete the historical knowledge. It is indispensable for a more detailed familiarity with the chief characters and events of the world or the country. Fortunately, the desire to read history is as natural as it is common among youth; and, even to a more advanced age, there is no better occupation, in leisure time, than historical reading.

24. What books treat upon the methods of teaching history?

a. Peter, "Historical Instruction in the Gymnasia," (Der Geschichtsunterricht auf Gymnasien,) Halle, 1849.

b. Loebell, "Outlines of a method for teaching History in the Gymnasia," (Grundzüge einer Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichts auf den Gymnasien,) Leipzig, 1847. This work suggests a careful partition of the material.

c. Miguel, "Contributions to the study of Biography in the Gymnasia," (Beiträge zur Lehre vom Biographische unterricht auf Gymnasien,) Aurich, 1847. d. C. A. Müller, "Historical Instruction in the Schools," (Über den Geschichtsunterricht auf Schulen,) Dresden, 1835. A very thorough treatise, recommending, among other things, the biographical method.

e. Arnold, "On the Idea, Actuality, &c., of History," (Über die Idee, das Wesen, etc., der Geschichte,) Koenigsberg, i. n., 1847. (See the history of the world.)

f. Assmann, "The Study of History," (Das Studium der Geschichte,) Brunswick, 1849, recommends beginning with myths and chronological reviews. g. G. Weber, "Historical Instruction in the Schools," (Der Geschichtsunterricht auf Schulen,) Heidelberg, 1850, contains very good hints for gymnasia, real and common schools, etc., etc. Besides the prefaces to many text-books, etc., we may mention Diesterweg's "Rhine Gazette," (Rheinische Blätter,) of 1835, 1840, 1842; General School Gazette of Darmstadt, of 1834, 1841, 1843, 1848; Mager's Pedagogical Review, of 1841, 1845, 1851, 1853, and 1854; the Schulblatt des provinz Brandenburg, 1851, 1852; Löw's Pedagogical Monthly Review, 1848, 1853, etc. Also, Diesterweg's, "Directory," (Wegweiser,) II.; and Nacke, Pedagogisches Jahresbericht, I., III., V., VII., etc.

25-40. Books and Maps. (On methods, see No. 24.) Text-book on Prussian History, Löschke, (the best.)

For private reading: Zimmermann, "History of Hohenzollern," (Geschichte der Hohenzollern;) Reiche, "The former times of Prussia," (Preussen's Vorzeit ;) Kloss, etc.

Collection of patriotic poems: Müller & Kletke, Berg, etc.

Short text-books on German History: Asmus, Kohlrausch, Eder, Böttiger, Grobe, and Dittmar. (The last is the best.)

Larger Histories of Germany: Pfister, K. A. Menzel, W. Menzel, Luder, Ranke, Raumer, Bülau, Lochner, Wietersheim, etc., etc.

For private reading on German History: Ramshorn, Niemeyer, (Deutscher Plutarch,) Henning, Wolff, (Germania,) Vogel, (Germania,) etc.

Collection of historical poems on German History: Wagner, A. Müller, H. Kletke, A. W. Grube, Zimmermann, A. Böttger, etc.

Text-books on General History: a. short, Dittmar, (the best;) b. larger, Leo, Wachler, Arndt, Ellendt, Dittmar, Wachsmuth, Schlosser, Dietsch, etc. (All of them used only in gymnasia and real schools.

Popular histories, with much material for biographical instruction: Böttger, Schwartz, A. W. Grube, (Characterbilder,) Vogel, (Geschichtsbilder,) Becker, etc. Classical Histories, partly on single periods: Schlosser, (the 18th century,) Raumer, (Hohenstaufen,) Eichhorn, Luden, Heeren & Ukert, Leo, Rehm, Wilken, (Crusades,) Bredow, Niebuhr, (Rome,) Ranke, (Popes and Reformation,) Dunker, Peter, O. Müller, (Greece,) Poelitz, W. Menzel, Arndt, Dahlmann, Wachsmuth, etc. For private reading on General History: Schwab, "Ancient History," (Sagen des Alterthums;) Lange, "Histories from Herodotus," (Geschichten aus Herodot;) Niebuhr, "Heroic History of Greece," (Griechische Heroengeschichte;) Homberg, "Biographies of celebrated Greeks," (Biographien berhümter Griechen,) etc.

For well educated readers: Kletke, "Antiquity in its chief movements," (Das Alterthum in seinen Hauptmomenten.) (Excellent.)

Historical Tables, very simple: Wander, Bredow, Schäfer, Dielitz, Püty, K. Th. Wagner, Peter; larger, Kohlrausch, Pischon, Lochner.

Historical Maps: a. small, Schaarschmidt, Muhlert, Rodowiez, König, etc. b. Larger, Wedell, Spuner; (Best and classical.) c. For the wall, (Wandkarten,) Vogel, (Europe;) Bretschneider, (Europe;) Hoffmann, (ancient world;) Holle, Kiepert, (ancient times.)

Historical Pictures: Dethier, Historisch-chronologische Gallerie; a collection of 1500 medallions. Gross, "History of the World in Pictures," (Weltgeschichte in bildern.) The very best on German history is K. H. Hermann's Geschichte des Deutschen Volks, (History of the German Nation,) in 15 pictures.

XIV. WOODWARD HIGH SCHOOL IN CINCINNATI.

THE System of Common Schools in Cincinnati was established in 1828-29 under a special act of the Legislature, by which a tax of $7,000 was annually imposed for the building of school-houses, and a like amount, in addition to the state appropriation, for the support of the schools. Under this act, school-houses were erected, in point of location, size and internal convenience, greatly in advance of the generally received notions of school architecture.

In 1834 the system was greatly extended, and, in 1845, the trustees were authorized to establish schools of different grades, and in 1850 to appoint a superintendent.

In 1847 a central high school was organized, under the charge of Prof. H. H. Barney, and in 1852 the Woodward* Fund and the Hughes* Fund, amounting to $300,000, and yielding over $5,000, (the Woodward estate in 1856 yielded $4,510,) were united for the purpose of sustaining two schools of this grade.

In 1853 a building was erected for the accommodation of the Hughes High School, at an expense, including lot, of about 40,000, and in 1856, in an opposite section of the city, another building, at a cost of $50,000, for the Woodward High School. Before giving the plan of this last structure, we will give the course of study, text-books, &c., from the "Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees and Visitors of Common Schools," for the school year ending July 7, 1857.

The system of public instruction in Cincinnati in 1856-57 embracedI. 9 district night schools, and 1 night high school, with 23 teachers and 1,143 pupils.

II. 20 district, sub-district and special district schools, with 201 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 9,983 pupils, distributed in each school into four sections or grades.

III. 4 intermediate schools, with 22 teachers and 943 pupils.

IV. 2 high schools, with 12 teachers and 295 pupils.

V. 1 normal school, with 1 teacher and 31 pupils.

VI. A central school library, with an aggregate of 12,000 volumes. The current expense of the public schools, for 1856-7, apart from buildings, was $143,088.11, or about $12.75 per pupil.

We have been unsuccessful in obtaining a biographical sketch of either William Woodward or John Hughes, whose names are now indissolubly associated with the system of public instruction in the city of Cincinnati. Mr. Woodward was born in the town of Columbia, in the state of Connecticut, and took with him, at the age of nineteen, to the banks of the Ohio, such training and instruction as a plain Connecticut farmer's home and a Connecticut district school could give, eighty years ago. We hope the accomplished President of the Board of Trustees, Hon. Rufus King, or the indefatigable Superintendent, A. J. Rickoff, Esq., or the Secretary, or Librarian of the Board, will give to the American public a biography of these two benefactors of public education.