sion. After this, they are obliged to study and to practice for three years under the direction of an engineer, architect or land surveyor, to be chosen by themselves, and to pass afterward a private and a public examination, at the university, on the subject of their courses.

The catalogue of the faculty for the year 1856-7 is as follows:

PLANA GIOVANNI, vice-president of the supreme Council of public instruction, in Analysis, will lecture on the introduction to the Infinitesimal Analysis, and on the Elements of differential and integral Calculus, at half past 11 o'clock, every day.

MORRIS GIUSEPPE, member of the supreme Council of public instruction, in Botany, will lecture on Organography, Glossology, vegetable Physiology, and Tassonomy; he will also undertake excursions in the neighborhood of the city, in which he will exercise his Students in determining Species; he will point out the natural families, (3d series,) and the medicinal, economical, and industrial plants in the botanic garden; finally, he will lecture on the distri bution of vegetables on the superficies of the globe, at half past 10, on Mondays and Fridays, till April, then every day, at half past 9.

SISMONDA ANGELO, member of the Council of the university, in Mineralogy, after having given the general principles of Mineralogy, will lecture on Flint Stone and its compounds, and on fossil combustibles, every day, at a quarter past 8.

POLLONE IGNAZIO, extraordinary member of the supreme Council of public instruction, and member of the general Council for the elementary schools, in Analysis, will lecture on algebraic Analysis, on Trigonometry, and on analytical Geometry, at half past 11, every day.

PROMIS CARLO, in civil Architecture, will lecture on it, at half past 9, every day. MENABREA LUIGI FEDERIGO, in Construction, will give the Theory of construction, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, at half past 10; and on Thursdays will apply the theory to special cases.

DEFILIPPI FILIPPO, in Zoology, after having given the general Ideas of the Structure and functions of animals, will lecture on mollusks, etc., and at the close of the year, will give a course of lectures on parts of the human body, at half past 8, every day.

ABBENE ANGELO, in Pharmaceutic Chemistry, after an Introduction, will lecture on Galenic Medicaments, and then on Medicaments taken from the inorganic kingdom, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, at half past 10. In the two last months he will lecture on chemical Toxicology.

RICHELMI PROSPERO, in Hydraulics, will lecture on this subject, every day, at half past 8; at the close of the year he will make hydraulic experiments at the Royal Hydraulic Tower, during the mornings.

ERBA GIUSEPPE BARTOLOMEO, in Algebra and superior Geometry, will lecture on these subjects, every day, at a quarter past 8.

FERRATI CAMILLO, in practical Geometry, will lecture on it every day, at half past 11; on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, he will lecture on descriptive Geometry, at 3 o'clock.

CHIO FELICE, in Superior Physical Science, will lecture on it, at half past 2, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays.

PIRIA RAFAELLE, in general Chemistry, after having given the general principles and laws of Chemistry, will lecture on Inorganic and Organic Bodies, at half past 9; he will make occasionally practical experiments.

N. N, in general and experimental Physical Science, will lecture on it, making occasionally public experiments, at 2 o'clock, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. DELPONTE GIO BATTA will take place of the professor of Botany. SISMONDA EUGENIO will take place of the professor of Mineralogy.

SOBRERO ASCANIO, in Chemistry applied to arts and industry, will lecture on Chemistry applied to the Art of construction.

BRUNO GIUSEPPE will take place of the professors of Mathematics.
CIMA ANTONIO will take place of the professor of Physical Science.

BORSARELLI PIETRO will take place of the professor of Pharmaceutic Chemistry, when prevented from lecturing.

The method of teaching is by lectures and by experiments in the experimental branches. Most of the professors publish elementary treatises on the subjects of their lectures, which are valuable both to the students and professors. These are also required to point out in their lectures and treatises the principal writers to be consulted by the students on the subjects of their study.

The discipline of the students is maintained by the same system, which is followed in the secondary schools. Indeed we should say, that expulsion

from the university is the only punishment, which can be applied by the scholastic authorities; we must also say, that the occasion very seldom arises of applying such a punishment. The Rector of the university is especially charged with the discipline of the institution.

Connected with the university, and under the direction of the government, there is a ROYAL COLLEGE OF THE PROVINCES, founded and endowed by the munificence of the kings of Sardinia and enriched by legacies of private benevolence. This is an establishment, in which the students are furnished with free board and lodging through all the course of the university, and with every aid in their studies and education. The royal college of the provinces disposes of about one hundred and fifty free places, which are given as a reward to those students, who have passed the most successful examinations. These examinations are opened whenever a vacancy occurs, and those students only can present themselves who have completed the secondary courses, and who are born in that province, to which belongs the vacant place. The students of the royal college of the provinces are also exempted from the examination fees.

After having completed the full course of the faculty, and having passed successfully all the annual examinations prescribed by law, the students are requested to enter upon a public disputation for obtaining the Doctorship. This disputation is upon subjects selected from those of the course, and published by the candidate. The discussion is sustained before the faculty, in which the collegiate doctors fill the office of examiners and opponents. The faculty afterward decides by ballot upon the merit of the candidate, bestowing upon him the Doctorship or rejecting his application.

The names of the students, who distinguished themselves in the examinations, are published at the close of the year, in the official paper.

From the colleges under the direction of the university of Turin, 740 students presented themselves in the year 1855-56 for examination preparatory to admission to the courses of the university, of which 607 were admitted, and 133 rejected. In the year 1856-7 there are in the university 1433 students, of which 2 belong to the faculty of theology, 709 to the faculty of jurisprudence, 264 to the faculty of medicine and surgery, 11 to the course of obstetric clinic, 17 to phlebotomy, 182 to pharmacy, 36 to the course of physical science and geometry, 7 to natural history, 16 to rational philosophy, 138 to the course of mathematics, 4 to the course of architecture, 32 to belles-lettres, 7 to methodology, 8 to the course of Latin grammar. Adding to this number the students, who pursued some part of their course in some provincial city, we have the total number of students 1858.

In the university of Genoa there were, according to the latest statistics, 556 students, of which 6 belonged to the faculty of theology, 282 to jurisprudence, 182 to medicine, surgery, and pharmacy, 86 to mathematics and architecture. The number of the students of the university of Cagliari was 325, of which 53 of theology, 125 of jurisprudence, 130 of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy, 11 of architecture, 6 of geodesy. The

number of the university of Sassari was 245, of which 43 of theology, 123 of jurisprudence, 76 of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy. From the colleges which depend upon the university of Genoa, there pass annually to the classes of the university an average of 201 students, from that of Cagliari 120, from Sassari 94, and the students who obtain annually the doctorships in the university of Turin reach an average of 525, in that of Genoa 140, in that of Cagliari 74, in that of Sassari 49.

The number of the professors in the university of Turin, including those of the cities of Chambery and Nice is 89, of Genoa 46, of Cagliari 34, of Sassari 29. Their salary is not uniform, being greater in Turin than in the other universities.

The university of Turin possesses for the aid of the intellectual education of its students the following institutions, the free use of which belongs to the professors, as well as to the scholars and the people at large.

1. A PUBLIC LIBRARY, which was founded by Emanuel Philibert, endowed by other kings, especially by Victor Amedeus II, and enriched by private donations. The library contains more than one hundred and ten thousand volumes, among which the collection of works on theology, jurisprudence, politics, medicine, and surgery, is the most complete. The principal treasures of the library are the Arabic, Greek, Latin, Italian, and French MSS. It possesses also many rare editions of the century in which the press was discovered, not a few of which are on parchments, among these the POLYGLOT OF ANTWERP, which was presented to the Duke Emanuel Philibert by Philip II. of Spain. There are also over one hundred MSS., of the remotest antiquity, on parchment, and a very rich collection of books on the fine arts, of ancient and modern prints, and drawings. The collection of Floras is complete, and there are many choice and rare editions of Arabic, Persian, Chaldaic and Hindoo books. 2. ANATOMICAL THEATRE.-The new anatomical theatre was founded by Charles Albert. Its architecture is simple and elegant in its construction, and it is surmounted by a roof of glass. Within are pipes, spouts, washing tubes, polished floors, and marble tables. The spacious hall destined to dissections is provided with all the improvements, which health and cleanliness require in anatomical operations. Under the main amphitheatre there is a spacious vault, where the subjects are deposited, and from which they are raised by means of a machine to a room above, where they are washed and laid on a marble table, and at the hour for the lecture, elevated by the same means to the floor of the amphitheatre, and placed in their position before the professor and the students. By other mechanical contrivances the subject approaches or withdraws from the professor. The light of the hall is so regulated, as to modify it according to the occasions. The walls of this hall are plastered with calcareous stucco, and are adorned with four great medallions, representing BERTRANDI, CIGNA, MALACARNE, and ROLANDO. Near the amphitheatre, there is a room appropriated for the use of the dissector, provided with all the contrivances for experiments. Between the yard of the anatomical theatre

and that of the great hospital of St. John, there is a subterranean communication, which facilitate the transportation of the subjects.

3. ANATOMICAL PATHOLOGICAL MUSEUM.-This museum contains many preparations of the systems and parts of the human body, embryos at different periods, pathological sections in an abnormal state. Among the most remarkable collections of this museum we may mention the collection of bones decomposed by syphilitic diseases, and by the use of mercury; the general osteomalacy, in which bones are light and spongy; the osteosarcoma of an elbow, which is larger than the head of a man; and the specimens of aneurism.

4.

CHEMICAL LABORATORIES AND AMPHITHEATRE.-There are six spacious rooms for the use of the laboratories, in which we find admirably arranged stoves and ovens, scales, and other instruments, and chemical and pharmaceutic preparations. The amphitheatre is designed for public lectures, and will seat five hundred pupils so advantageously, that the most minute experiments can be observed.

5. BOTANIC GARDEN.-The botanic garden was founded by Victor Amedeus II., and endowed and improved by his successors. Under Charles Albert the limits were enlarged, new canals made, and new pipes added in order to facilitate the irrigation of the plants; the trees and shrubs, which will grow in the open air, were planted and arranged, according to their natural classification in a suitable grove, in which we find also the officinal and economic species, methodically arranged. The same king purchased for the garden the rich collection of American plants brought to Piedmont by the botanist Bertero, and the plants of the islands of Sardinia and Capraja were added. The number of the cultivated species is about eleven thousand, including many of great rarity.

The species of the herbarium exceed forty thousand. There is also a collection of indigenous mushrooms, arranged in three hundred and fifty groups, cast in wax according to nature. The king has recently presented to the garden a beautiful collection of living plants, seeds, and woods brought from Brazil by the Prince of Carignano, and a not less interesting collection of dry species, seeds and fruits, for the study of carpology, gathered by Dr. Casaretto, in his excursion to the same country.

As early as 1732, the plants which blossom in the garden were painted, and that work having been continued to this time, the institution has a most complete botanic iconography, which contains more than five thousand plates in folio.

6. CABINET OF PHYSICAL APPARATUS.-This collection began to be formed in 1721, was enriched by Charles Emmanuel III., and increased by Beccaria. Charles Felix sent Professor Botto to France and England, to purchase all the modern apparatus required by the cabinet, and many fine instruments, especially relating to optics, were added to it by him. 7. ASTRONOMIC OBSERVATORY.-The observatory was located in the year 1820 on the northern tower of the four, which arise at the angle of the ancient palace of the Royal Castle, now used for the meetings of the Senate. The hall of the observatory is beautifully arranged, and its walls

adorned with many medallions, representing LAGRANGE, GALILEO, TYCHO BRAHE, NEWTON, KEPLER, and CASSINI. The meridian circle is erected between two marble columns in the centre of the hall, and can be turned east or west, at the pleasure of the observer. This instrument was constructed in Munich by Reichenbach, and has a diameter of three feet, divided on silver into arcs of a sixtieth, and reads to two seconds. The clear aperture of the telescope is of 12 centimeters, and its focal length of a meter and six hundred millimeters. Among the other instruments, we may mention a pendulum, which gives the sidereal time, constructed by MARTIN of Paris, two other telescopes by DOLLOND, one with an aperture of 65 millimeters, and of a focal length of a meter, the other of an aperture of a decimeter, and with a focal length of a meter, and 50 centimeters. There is a fourth telescope, by Fraunhofer of Munich, mounted on a brass tripod, with an aperture of 75 millimeters, and a focal length of a meter. There is also a reflector-sextant, by Troughton of London, with a diameter of two decimeters, divided on silver, which reads to five seconds. Ascending to the turning roof on the east, we find a Refractor circle of a diameter of 50 centimeters, divided on silver, which reads to four seconds, the work of Reichenbach. On the west side of the roof is an Equatorial, which has a circle of declination of a diameter of 62 centimeters, divided in silver, and reads to five seconds. The clock has a diameter of 45 centimeters, divided on silver, and marks minutes.

8. HYDRAULIC BUILDING.-This builiding is erected at a distance of two miles from the city. It consists of a large tower, with three floors, and it can be filled with water from a conduct above. Two large reservoirs receive the water from the tower and measure it; there are besides many aqueducts with different declivities and directions, and a collection of hydrometric apparatus and instruments.

9. ZOOLOGIC MUSEUM.-Founded during the reign of Charles Emmanuel III., it received many donations from private sources, and was greatly increased by professors Borson and Bonelli; at present it is one of the best museums in Italy. The different classes of animals are arranged in two large halls, in a long gallery, and in many other rooms. The vertebrates, cephalopods, molluscs, and zoophyts occupy large convenient shelves; the living and fossil shells are disposed in elegant cases; the crustacea and insects fill a great number of cases. The invertebrates and testacea are abundant, as well as the shells both living and fossil. Among the living shells is worthy of being mentioned an avicula margaritifera, in which a pearl can be seen, wonderful for its volume and for its form. The fossils embrace a collection of shells discovered in the tertiaria of Italy, and especially of Piedmont. Finally, a series of skeletons of rare animals well kept and arranged.

10. MINERALOGIC MUSEUM.-This collection embraces many specimens of minerals, rocks and earth of different countries, and especially of Piedmont, and of the island of Sardinia. It occupies two great halls, where the objects are exhibited either in shelves, on tables, or in cases enclosed by glasses.