Who or which introduces a new fact about the antecedent; that only marks it off from other nouns.

(iii) Who has whose and whom in the possessive and objective—both in the singular and in the plural.

(iv) Which is not to be regarded as the neuter of who. It is the form used when the antecedent is the name of an animal or thing. After a preposition, it is sometimes replaced by where; as wherein = in which ; whereto = to which.

(v) What performs the function of a compound relative=that+which. If we examine its function in different sentences, we shall find that it may be equivalent to

(=the person that).

(a) Two Nominatives; as in 'This is what he is (b) Two Objectives; as in "He has what he asked for " (=the thing that). (c) Nom. and Obj.; as in "This is what he asked for " (=the thing that). (d) Obj. and Nom.; as in "I know what he is" (=the person that).

(vi) As is the proper relative after the adjectives such and same. is, however, properly an adverb. "This is the same as I had" is="This is the same as that which I had."

There was no

(vii) But is the proper relative after a negative; as man but would have died for her." Here but = who + not. like the Latin use of quin = qui + non).

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

(This is

16. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun that does not stand in the place of a noun which is the name for a definite person or thing, but is used vaguely, and without a distinct reference. 17. The chief Indefinite Pronouns are one, none; any; other; and some.

(i) One is the best instance of an indefinite pronoun. It is simply the cardinal one used as a pronoun. In O.E. we used man; and we still find one example in the Bible-Zech. xiii. 5: “Man taught me to keep cattle from my youth." One, as an indefinite pronoun, has two peculiarities. It (a) can be put in the possessive case; and (b) can take a plural form. Thus we can say: (a) " One can do what one likes with one's own ;" and (b) "I want some big ones."

(ii) None is the negative of one. "None think the great unhappy but the great." But none is always plural. No (the adjective) is a short form of none; as a is of an; and my of mine.

(iii) Any is derived from an, a form of one. It may be used as an adjective also-either with a singular or a plural noun. When used as a pronoun, it is generally plural.

(iv) Other is

=

an ther.

The ther is the same as that in either, whether; and it always indicates that one of two is taken into the mind.

(v) Some is either singular or plural. It is singular in the phrase Some one; in all other instances, it is a plural pronoun.

ADJECTIVES.

1. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun to describe or point out the thing denoted by the noun-and hence to limit the application of the noun; or, more simply,—

Adjectives are noun-marking words.

(i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verbs. They assert implicitly. Hence they are implicit predicates. Thus, if I say, "I met three old men," I make three statements: (1) I met men; (2) The men were old; (3) The men were three in number. But these statements are not explicitly made.

(ii) Adjectives enlarge the content, but limit the extent of the idea expressed by the noun. Thus when we say "white horses," we put a larger content into the idea of horse; but, as there are fewer white horses than horses, we limit the extent of the notion.

2. An adjective cannot stand by itself. It must have with it a noun either expressed or understood. In the sentence "The good are happy," persons is understood after good.

3. Adjectives are of four kinds. They are (i) Adjectives of Quality; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity; (iii) Adjectives of Number; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or we may say,Adjectives are divided into

Qualitative.

ADJECTIVES

Quantitative.

Numbering.

Demonstrative.

These four answer, respectively, to the questions

(i) of what sort? (ii) How much? (iii) How many? (iv) Which?

4. Qualitative Adjectives denote a quality of the subject or thing named by the noun; such as blue, white; happy, sad; big, little.

(i) The word qualitative comes from the Lat. qualis of what sort.
(ii) Most of these adjectives admit of degrees of comparison.

5. Quantitative Adjectives denote either quantity or indefinite number; and they can go either (i) with the singular, or (ii) with the plural of nouns, or (iii) with both. The following is a list :—

(i) We find the phrases: Little need; little wool; much pleasure; more sense; some sleep, etc.

(ii) We find the phrases: All men; any persons; both boys; several pounds, etc.

(iii) We find the phrases: Any man and any men; no man and no men; enough corn and soldiers enough; some boy and some boys, etc.

6. Numbering or Numeral Adjectives express the number of the things or persons indicated by the noun. They are generally divided into Cardinal Numerals and Ordinal Numerals. But Ordinal Numerals are in reality Demonstrative Adjectives.

(i) Numeral comes from the Lat. numerus, a number. Hence also come numerous, numerical, and number (the b serves as a cushion between the m and the r).

(ii) Cardinal comes from the Lat. cardo, a hinge.

(iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. ordo, order.

7. Demonstrative Adjectives are those which are used to point out the thing expressed by the noun; and, besides indicating a person or thing, they also indicate a relation either to the speaker or to something else.

(i) Demonstrative comes from the Lat demonstro, I point out. From the same root come monster, monstrous, &c.

8. Demonstrative Adjectives are of three kinds: (i) Articles; (ii) Adjective Pronouns (often so called); and (iii) the Ordinal

Numerals.

(i) There are two articles (better call them distinguishing adjectives) in our language: a and the. a is a broken-down form of ane, the northern form of one; and before a vowel or silent h it retains the n. In some phrases a has its old sense of one; as in "two of a trade;" "all of a size," etc.

"An two men ride on a horse, one must ride behind."

Shakespeare (Much Ado about Nothing, III. v. 40).

66

(ii) We must be careful to distinguish the article a from the brokendown preposition a in the phrase "twice a week.” This latter a is a fragment of on; and the phrase in O.E. was tuwa on wucan." Similarly, the in" the book" is not the same as the in" the more the merrier." The latter is the old ablative of thaet; and is=by that.

(iii) Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives are so called because they can be used either as adjectives with the noun, or as. pronouns for the noun. They are divided into the following four

classes :

(a) Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns - This, these; that, those; yon, yonder.

(b) Interrogative Adjective Pronouns-Which? what? whether (of the two)?

(c) Distributive Adjective Pronouns-Each, every, either, neither. (d) Possessive Adjective Pronouns-My, thy, his, her, etc. (These words perform a double function. They are adjectives, because they go with a noun; and pronouns, because they stand for the noun or name of the person speaking or spoken of.)

(iv) The Ordinal Numerals are: First, second, third, etc.

9. Some adjectives are used as nouns, and therefore take a plural form. Thus we have Romans, Christians, superiors, elders, ones, others, nobles, etc. Some take the form of the possessive case, as either's, neither's.

(i) The plural of one as an adjective is two, three, etc.; of one as a noun, ones. Thus we can say, "These are poor strawberries, bring me better ones." Other numeral adjectives may be used as nouns. Thus Wordsworth, in one of his shorter poems, has

"The sun has long been set;

The stars are out by twos and threes;
The little birds are piping yet

Among the bushes and trees."

(ii) Our language is very whimsical in this matter. We can say Romans and Italians; but we cannot say Frenches and Dutches. Milton has (Paradise Lost, iii. 438) Chineses.

NUMERALS.

10. Cardinal Numerals are those which indicate numbers alone. Some of them are originally nouns, as dozen, hundred, thousand, and million; but these may also be used as adjectives.

(i) One was in A.S. an or ane. The pronunciation wun is from a western dialect. It is still rightly sounded in its compounds atone, alone, lonely. None and no are the negatives of one and o (=an and a).

(ii) Two, from A.S. twegen mas.; twa fem. The form twegen appears in twain and twin, the g having been absorbed.

(iii) Eleven en (one) +lif (ten). Twelve-twe (two) +lif (ten).

=

(iv) Thirteen-three+ten. The r has shifted its place, as in third. (v) Twenty-twen (two)+tig (ten). Tig is a noun, meaning "a set of ten." The guttural was lost, and it became ty.

(vi) Score, from A.S. sceran, to cut. Accounts of sheep, cattle, etc., were kept by notches on a stick; and the twentieth notch was made deeper, and was called the cut-the score.

11. Ordinal Numerals are Adjectives of Relation formed mostly from the Cardinals. They are: First, Second, Third, Fourth, etc.

(i) First is a contraction of the A.S. fyrrest (farthest).

(ii) Second is not Eng. but Latin. The O.E. for second was other. Second comes (through French) from the Latin, secundus, following— that is, following the first. A following or favourable breeze ("a wind that follows fast") was called by the Romans a secundus ventus." Secundus comes from Lat. sequor, I follow. Other words from the same root are sequel, consequence, etc.

(iii) Third, by transposition, from A.S. thridda. A third part was called a thriding (where the r keeps its right place); as a fourth part was a fourthing or farthing. Thriding was gradually changed into Riding, one of the three parts into which Yorkshire was divided.

(iv) In eigh-th, as in eigh-teen, a t has vanished.

THE INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES.

These

12. The modern English adjective has lost all its old inflexions for gender and case, and retains only two for number. two are these (the plural of this) and those (the plural of that).

(i) The older plural was thise—pronounced these, and then so spelled. In this instance, the spelling, as so seldom happens, has followed the pronunciation. In general in the English language, the spelling and the pronunciation keep quite apart, and have no influence on each other.

(ii) Those was the oldest plural of this, but in the 14th century it came to be accepted as the plural of that.