13. Most adjectives are now inflected for purposes of comparison only.

14. There are three Degrees of Comparison: the Positive; the Comparative; and the Superlative.

(i) The word degree comes from the French degré, which itself comes from the Latin gradus, a step. From the same root come grade, gradual, degrade, etc.

15. The Positive Degree is the simple form of the adjective.

16. The Comparative Degree is that form of the adjective which shows that the quality it expresses has been raised one step or degree higher. Thus we say sharp, sharper; cold, colder; brave, braver. The comparative degree brings together only two ideas. Thus we may speak of "the taller of the two," but not "of the three."

Comparative comes from the Lat. compăro, I bring together.

17. The Comparative degree is formed in two ways: either (i) by adding er to the positive; or (ii) if the adjective has two syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or more, by placing the adverb more before the adjective.

RULES: I. A silent e is dropped; as brave, braver.

II. A y after a consonant is changed into 1 before er, etc.; as happy, happier.

III. A final consonant after a short vowel is doubled; as red, redder; cruel, crueller.

IV. In choosing between er and more, sound and custom seem to be the safest guides. Thus we should not say selecter, but more select; not infirmer, but more infirm. Carlyle has beautifullest, etc.; but his is not an example to be followed.

18. The Superlative Degree is that form of the adjective which shows that the quality it expresses has been raised to the highest degree. The superlative degree requires that three things, or more, be compared. Thus "He is the tallest of the two" would be incorrect.

Superlative comes from the Lat. superlatīvus, lifting up above.

19. The Superlative degree is formed in two ways: either (i) by adding est to the positive; or (ii) if the adjective has two syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or more, by placing the adverb most before the adjective.

(i) Happiest; most recent; most beautiful.

20. Some adjectives, from the very nature of the ideas they express, do not admit of comparison. Such are golden, wooden; left, right; square, triangular; weekly, monthly; eternal, perpetual, etc.

21. The most frequently used adjectives have irregular comparisons. The following is a list :

(i) Worse and worst come, not from bad, but from the root weor, evil. (War comes from the same root.) The s in worse is a part of the root; and the full comparative is really worser, which was used in the 16th century (Shakespeare, "Hamlet," III. iv. 157). Worst worsest.

=

(ii) The th in farther is intrusive. Farther is formed on a false analogy with further; as could (from can) is with would (from will). Farther is used of progression in space; further, of progression in reasoning. (iii) Former was in A.S. forma (=first). It is a superlative form with a comparative sense.

(iv) Better comes from A.S. bet-good-a root which was found in betan, to make good, and in the phrase to boot="to the good."

(v) Later and latest refer to time; latter and last to position in space or in a series. Last is as by assimilation from latst; as best is from betst.

(vi) Less does not come from the lit in little; but from the A.S, las, weak. Least=laesest.

(vii) Nighest is contracted into next; as highest was into hext. Thus gh+s=k+s=x.

C

(viii) We say "the oldest man that ever lived," and "the eldest of the family." Older and oldest refer to mere number; elder and eldest to a family or corporate group.

(ix) Rathe is still found in poetry. Milton has "the rathe primrose, that forsaken dies ;" and Coleridge, "twin buds too rathe to bear the winter's unkind air." The Irish pronunciation rayther is the old English pronunciation.

(x) Hind is used as an adjective in the phrase "the hind wheels."

(i) After, as an adjective, is found in aftermath and afterthought.

(ii) In is used as an adjective in the word in-side; and as a noun in the phrase "the ins and outs" of a question.

(iii) In the inns of law, the utter-bar (outer-bar) is opposed to the

inner-bar.

(iv) The neth in nether is the same as the neath in beneath.

(v) The ov in over is the ove in above, and is a dialectic form of up. It is still found in such names as Over Leigh in Cheshire, and Over Darwen in Lancashire.

(vi) Hindmost, uttermost, are not compounds of most, but are double superlatives. There was an old superlative ending ema, which we see in Lat. extrēmus, suprēmus, etc. It was forgotten that this was a superlative, and est or ost was added. Thus we had hindema, midThese afterwards became hindmost and midmost.

ema.

THE VERB.

1. The Verb is that "part of speech" by means of which we make an assertion.

It is the keystone of the arch of speech.

the verb out

(i) The word verb comes from the Lat. verbum, a word. It is so called because it is the word in a sentence. If we leave of a sentence, all the other words become mere nonsense.

Thus we can

say, "I saw him cross the bridge." Leave out saw, and the other words have no meaning whatever.

(ii) A verb has sometimes been called a telling word, and this is a good and simple definition for young learners.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

2. Verbs are divided into two classes - Transitive and Intransitive.

3. A Transitive Verb denotes an action or feeling which, as it were, passes over from the doer of the action to the object of it. "The boy broke the stick;" "he felled the tree;" "he hates walking."

In these sentences we are able to think of the action of breaking and felling as passing over to the stick and the tree.

Transitive comes from the Lat. verb transire, to pass over.

The more correct definition is this:

A Transitive Verb is a verb that requires an object.

This definition covers the instances of have, own, possess, inherit, etc., as well as break, strike, fell, etc.

4. An Intransitive Verb denotes a state, feeling, or action which does not pass over, but which terminates in the doer or agent. "He sleeps ;" "she walks;" "the grass grows."

5. There is, in general, nothing in the look or appearance of the verb which will enable us to tell whether it is transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb may be used intransitively; an intransitive verb, transitively. In a few verbs we possess a causative form. Thus we have :

(ii) When the intransitive verb is compounded with a preposition either (i) separable, or (ii) inseparable.

(i) (a) He laughed.

(ii) (a) He came.

(iii) (a) He spoke.

(b) He laughed-at me.

(b) He overcame the enemy.

(b) He bespoke a pair of boots.

Such verbs are sometimes called "Prepositional Verbs."

II. Transitive verbs may be used intransitively—

(i) With the pronoun itself understood :—

(a) He broke the dish.

(b) The sea breaks on the rocks. (b) The door shut suddenly.

(a) They moved the table.

(a) She shut the door.

(b) The table moved.

(ii) When the verb describes a fact perceived by the senses :—

THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS.

6. Verbs are changed or modified for Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. These changes are expressed, partly by inflexion, and partly by the use of auxiliary verbs.

(i) A verb is an auxiliary verb (from Lat. auxilium, aid) when its own full and real meaning drops out of sight, and it aids or helps the verb to which it is attached to express its meaning. Thus we say, “He works hard that he may gain the prize;" and here may has not its old meaning of power, or its present meaning of permission. But

(ii) If we say "He may go," here may is not used as an auxiliary, but is a notional verb, with its full meaning; and the sentence is= "He has leave to go."