explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from intelligible causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which consequently are expressive of anger.

ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.

Page 60.

We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has arisen.

With social animals, the power of intercommunication between. the members of the same community-and, with other species, between the opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old-is of the highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries, gestures, and expressions, but has invented. articulate language; if, indeed, the word invented can be applied to a process completed by innumerable steps, halfconsciously made. Any one who has watched monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other's gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts, those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.

As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many animals, there is no a priori improbability in the supposition that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain feelings are already expressed should at first have been voluntarily employed under the influence of an opposite state of feel

ing. The fact of the gestures being now innate would be no valid objection to the belief that they were at first intentional; for, if practiced during many generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless, it is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of the cases which come under our present head of antithesis have thus originated.

With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it sinful to speak, and, as they could not avoid holding some communication, they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition seems to have been employed. Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution, writes to me that "opposites are greatly used in teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them." Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This depends partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin; and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity. Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful, or is completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language.

Page 64.

When a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species, from feeling affectionate, first slightly arched its back, held its tail perpendicularly upward and pricked its ears, can it be believed that the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly the reverse of that when, from being ready to fight or to spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to

side, and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and "hot-house face," which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing. It can not be supposed that he knew that I should understand his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up visiting the hot-house.

Hence, for the development of the movements which come under the present head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness, must have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of certain muscles; and, when we have performed a directly opposite movement, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play-as in turning to the right or to the left, in pushing away or pulling an object toward us, and in lifting or lowering a weight.

THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTION OF THE EXCITED NERVOUS SYSTEM ON THE BODY.

Expression

of the Emo

tions, page 66.

The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly affected, on the body, is the loss of color in the hair, which has occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for execution in India, in which the change of color was so rapid that it was perceptible to the eye.

Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no service, often

of much disservice, and can not have been at first acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young children do not tremble, but go into convulsions, under the circumstances which would induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited in different individuals in very different degrees, and by the most diversified causes-by cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature of the body is then above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by exhaustion after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree from delight that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I have heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited, causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons.

Page 69.

When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is brought into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely compressed, or, more commonly, the lips are retracted, with the teeth clinched or ground together.

Page 75.

The heart will be all the more readily

affected through habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements of his body, but he can not prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His chest will, perhaps, give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for the movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner, those muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands, again, are wholly independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may command his features, but can not always prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any outward gesture, but he can not check the secretion of saliva.

Page 77.

With all, or almost all, animals, even with birds, terror causes the body to tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles.

A physician once remarked to me, as a Page 79. proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary offenses, and put himself into a passion, unconsciously, for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and, since hearing this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full truth.

Page 81.

Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.