foreign oppression. Success crowned the allied arms of France and Sardinia; while Garibaldi performed prodigies at the head of his volunteers, for with little cavalry and without cannon he defeated well-provided divisions of the Austrians, the Emperor and Victor Emmanuel successively won the great battles of Magenta and Solferino, by which Lombardy was freed. Like the people of Tuscany those of Parma, Modena, and the Roman Legations, declared for Victor Emmanuel. The victorious armies were expecting to be led to the liberation of Venice, in fulfilment of the Imperial promise to free Italy to the Adriatic, when the Emperor Napoleon, without taking counsel of his ally, invited the Emperor Francis Joseph to an interview, which being accepted, led to the unsatisfactory settlement at Villafranca, subsequently turned into the treaty of Zurich. By the conditions of this agreement of the 11th July, it was arranged that the two sovereigns would join in supporting an Italian confederation under the honorary presidency of the Pope. The Emperor of Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon, who transferred it to the King of Sardinia; Venetia remaining under the Austrian crown, was to form part of the Italian confederation. The two sovereigns engaged to use their efforts, but without recourse to arms, to have the Dukes of Tuscany and Modena reinstated, and with regard to the Pope they undertook to demand the introduction of necessary reforms, while separating the administration of the Legations from the rest of the States of the Church.

When this agreement was made known, the greatest disappointment was felt by the Italians, whose ardent desire was to have a united Italy under the constitutional sovereignty of Victor Emmanuel. The Sardinian minister, Count Cavour, was so indignant that he at once resigned: Garibaldi threw up his command, and quitted Sardinia, while expressing his devoted loyalty to the king. Dissatisfaction with the settlement of Villafranca became increased when the Emperor Napoleon claimed Savoy and Nice from Sardinia. His professions of disinterestedness were called in question. Suspicions of the encroaching spirit of the French Emperor were

A.D. 1859-60.]

GARIBALDI LANDS IN SICILY.

301,

revived, the facilities too with which an army able to defeat one of the first military powers of the Continent could be landed from the sea were noted, and Englishmen, awakened to the necessity of providing their country with proper means of defence, agreed to form an army of Volunteers, which, never provoking hostility, would hold itself in effective readiness against invasion from any quarter. The movement so pure and disinterested received the countenance of the Queen and government, and embraced all parties and conditions of men in the bonds of loyalty and patriotism.

As the treaty of Villafranca disavowed the exercise of any other than moral means in favour of the rejected princes of Italy, Lord John Russell, who had succeeded to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in the government of which Lord Palmerston was Premier, claimed (1860) for the several Italian States who had declared for Victor Emmanuel, the right of regularly recording their wishes by vote, according to the way in which the French people had been called upon to elect their Emperor. The Pope unwilling to lose the Legations, fulminated an excommunication against all who had a hand in despoiling him of the States of the Church, and not trusting to spiritual thunders, proceeded to raise an army of his own, composed of adventurers from different countries, which he placed under the command of the exiled French General de Lamoricière. At the same time Sicily arose against the King of Naples, whereupon Garibaldi, seeing that an opportunity had arisen for making a further step in the plan of a united Italy, by the rescue of Naples from its Bourbon king, set sail from Genoa, and in the beginning of May 1860 landed at Marsala. Having with his few hundred followers escaped the Neapolitan fleet, he beat the Neapolitan army at Calatafimi, and obliged Palermo to surrender, notwithstanding the presence of 25,000 regular troops, supported by a squadron at sea; and in his assumed capacity of Dictator, he declared Sicily to be united to the Italian kingdom. In the beginning of August he crossed the Straits, while the King of Naples, leaving his capital open to the conqueror, retired at the head of 50,000 men upon Capua and Gaeta. Hereupon Victor Emman

uel called upon the Pope to dismiss his mercenaries, and upon refusal of his demand marched an army into the Ecclesiastical States. The Papal army was overwhelmed, and Lamoricière obliged to capitulate in Ancona. Garibaldi, having already won the battle of Volturno, was quickly joined by the Piedmontese troops, and the King of Naples, worsted in a second encounter, shut himself up in Gaeta, where he was not long able to maintain himself, and Naples, like Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, declared for Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi, the real author of this marvellous deliverance, refusing all rewards from the king, retired to his humble residence in the island of Caprera, determined to reserve himself for a future attempt to complete the unity of Italy, by making Rome her capital, and recovering Venice from Austria.

In order to strengthen her hands against the threatened peril, and moved by general considerations of policy, Austria created a Consultative Council of the Empire, in which her separate states should be represented. Hungary refused to send delegates to this proposed parliament, and declared she would abide by her own ancient constitution. Through this opposition, the Austrian Government feeling itself baffled, put the country under martial law. The peace of Italy became then dependent upon the presence of a French army in Rome, maintained there contrary to the will of the people, and without even acknowledgment of thanks by the Papal Government.

The Chinese, by their ill faith, provoked England and France to a renewal of hostilities in the autumn of the year 1860. General Sir Hope Grant, and the French General Montauban, attacked and captured the Taku forts; the newly-invented gun of Sir William Armstrong being for the first time brought into play, with an effect which decided the merits of this formidable instrument of war. The Emperor immediately despatched a Commissioner to treat for peace. Lord Elgin peremptorily stated his conditions, threatening, in case of their not being accepted, to march to Pekin, and while the Chinese were hesitating, the Allies

A.D. 1860.]

TREATY OF PEACE.

303

advanced on the capital. The Chinese appearing to yield, it was arranged that the allied troops should halt at a place within five miles of Tungchow, the Chinese army at the same time falling back, while the Ambassadors proceeded with an escort to Tungchow to sign the convention. Subsequent events gave rise to the opinion that the arrangement was made by the enemy with a view to entrap the British and French Ambassadors, and carry them off as prisoners. Upon Sir Hope Grant's arrival upon the ground which was marked out for the encampment of the troops, he found it occupied by a large army covered by batteries. At this time the Commissioners who were superintending arrangements for the reception of Lord Elgin were still at Tungchow, and orders, under a flag of truce, were forthwith despatched for the return of the whole party. Suddenly a British officer, Colonel Walker, pursued by the enemy's fire, reached the English lines, bringing the account of an attempted assassination of the whole party. A battle ensued, in which the Chinese army was completely defeated. The Imperial Government now offered in good earnest to yield to all demands, but Lord Elgin would not listen to any overtures until the British, French, and Sikhs, in all twenty-six, so treacherously captured were restored. Unfortunately it proved that four Englishmen had already succumbed to the most brutal treatment, one of the number being Mr. Bowlby, the able correspondent of the Times newspaper; the others were Captain Brabazon (who had been beheaded), Captain Anderson, and Mr. De Norman; Messrs. Parkes and Loch made their escape; the French priest Luc was also beheaded. In order to brand for ever this barbarous treachery, Lord Elgin, besides claiming compensation for the bereaved families of his countrymen, determined upon laying in ashes the summer residence of the Emperor, which had been the scene of these murders. It was in Pekin itself, the capital of the Chinese empire, that on the 24th October 1860 was signed the treaty of peace, by which it was stipulated that ministers of foreign powers should be allowed to reside officially in the city.

The indemnity at first claimed was doubled. Tientsin

was opened to trade, and Kowloon ceded to the British crown. Christians are at liberty to propagate their faith. The East awaits the civilisation of the western world.

It was upon the 11th February 1860 that the French Moniteur published the commercial treaty between France and Great Britain, by which the former country substituted for a protective system, so rigid as in some cases to amount to exclusion of British manufactures, duties as moderate as circumstances would permit in the judgment of the Government, which showed itself in advance of public opinion. To Mr. Cobden, who conducted the negotiations for England, the Corporation of London presented the freedom of the City. Her Majesty offered, in requital of such valuable services, a Baronetcy with the rank of Privy Councillor, which the honourable gentleman declined. The principles of liberal dealings between nations have already been vindicated by increased trade, to the advantage of both countries, for the trade of France, which in 1853 was represented by 4,600,000 tons, inwards and outwards, had increased in 1861 to 7,600,000. Within the same period that of England increased from 18,400,000 to 26,600,000, while English imports and exports, which in 1854 were valued at £268,210,145 sterling, rose in 1861 to £378,161,311 sterling. Indeed, so good were the effects of the commercial treaty, as to alleviate considerably the sufferings occasioned by the suspension of trade with the convulsed American States, of which we have now to speak, and the stoppage of cotton mills, caused by the blockade of the southern ports, from whence supplies were principally drawn.

Friendly relations between England and the United States of America received a fresh impetus from an invitation to visit Washington which the President addressed to the Prince of Wales, as soon as it became known that His Royal Highness intended to make a tour in Canada. To this invitation Her Majesty, upon the 22d June 1860, graciously wrote an autograph reply of acceptUpon the 18th August, the Prince made his public entry into Quebec, amidst the enthusiastic plaudits of the loyal Cana

ance.