In

In some of the new specimens the vasculo-medullary axes present no differences from those of the Astromyelon already described. The radiating lines of cells separating the lamina prove to be transverse sections of elongated vertical lamine composed of cells with a mural arrangement, and which separate large vertical lacunæ of varying lengths; a type of cortical tissue clearly indicating a plant of aquatic habits. So far as this bark is concerned, all the ramifications of the plant display similar features, but several of the specimens exhibit important variations in the structure of the vasculo-medullary axis. them the central cellular medulla is replaced by an axial va cular bundle, which has little, or in some examples apparently no, cellular element intermingled with the vascular portions. In some examples this axial bundle is invested by the thick exogenous zone seen in Astromyelon. In others that zone is wholly wanting. Yet there appears to be no reason for doubting that these are but varied states of the same plant which branched freely, the differentiated branches baving, doubtless, some morphological significances, as yet incapable of being explained. That the plant was a Phanerogam allied to Myriophyllum, is most improbable. It has several features of resemblance to the Cryptogamic Marsilea, from which it does not differ more widely than the fossil Lepidodendra do from the living Lycopodiacea.

The author describes a new specimen of Psaronius Renaultii, found by Mr. Wild, of Ashton-under-Lyne. Those previously described, consisted almost entirely of fragments of the bark and its ærial rootlets. The present specimen contains a perfect C-shaped fibro-vascular bundle and a portion of a second one, resembling some of those described by Corda, and which leave no room for doubting that our British Coal-measures contain at least one arborescent fern, equal in magnitude to those obtained from the deposits at Autun.

In his Memoir, Parts IX. and X., the author described, under the provisional generic name of Zygosporites, some small spherical bodies with furcate peripheral projections. Similar bodies had been met with in France, and were regarded by some of the French paleontologists as true Carboniferous representatives of the Desmidiacea. The author was unable to accept this conclusion, deeming it much more probable that they would prove to be spores of a different kind." Mr. Spencer exhibited the specimen now described at the York meeting. It is a true sporangium, containing a cluster of these Zygosporites. Though they undoubtedly bear a close superficial resemblance to the zygospores of the Desmidiæ, their inclosure within a common sporangium demonstrates them to be something very different. There is now no doubt but that they are the spores of the strobilus, described by the author in his Memoir, Part V., under the name of Volkmannia Dawsoni. Hence the genus Zygosporites may be cancelled.

Another interesting specimen found by Mr. Wild, is a young Calamite, with a more curiously differentiated bark than any that has hitherto been discovered. The structure of the vascular cylinder and of the innermost layer of the bark, differs in no essential respect from those previously described; but the outermost portion displays an entirely new feature. It consists of a narrow zone of small longitudinal prosenchymatous bundles, each one having a triangular transverse section, the apex of each section being directed inwards, whilst their contiguous bases are in contact with what appears to be a thin epidermal layer. As in every previously discovered Calamite in which the cortex is preserved, the peripheral surface of this specimen is perfectly smooth or "entire.' It displays no trace of the longitudinal ridges and furrows seen in nearly all the traditional representations of Calamites figured in our text-books.

It has long been seen that the medullary cells of the Lepidodendra, as well as the vessels of their non-exogenous medullary sheaths, steadily increased in number as these two organs increased in size correlatively with the corresponding general growth of the plants. But the way in which that increase was brought about has continued to be a mystery. The author now describes a Lepidodendron of the type of L. Harcourtii in which nearly every medullary cell is subdivided into two or younger cells, showing that, when originally entombed, the pith was an extremely active form of meristem, though the branch itself had attained to a diameter of at least two inches. The numerous small young cells are of irregular form. Their deve lopment by further growth into a regular parenchyma would inevitably necessitate a corresponding increase in the diameter of the branch as a whole; and it must have been from these newly

more

formed cells that the medullary cylinder obtained the element out of which to construct the additional vessels, the increase of which has been shown to be the invariable accompaniment of the growth of the branch. As might be expected, the growth of the vascular cylir der, or medullary sheath, could only have been a centripetal one.

A new form of Halonia from Arran is described. Instead of its central portion consisting, as in previously-described examples, of the usual Lepidodendroid medulla surrounded by a vascular cylinder, it consists of a solid axis of vessels, resembling in this respect all the very young Lepidodendroid twigs previously described from the same locality. Many recently obtained specimens of Lepidodendroid branches sustain the author's previous observations that all examples from Arran having less than a certain diameter, have the solid axial bundle, whilst all above that diameter have a cylindrical vascular bundle inclosing a cellular medulla. The first type commences with the smallest twigs, and is found increasing gradually up to the diameter referred to. The second type begins where the other ends, and increases in diameter until attaining the dimensions of the larges: stems, in none of which does the solid bundle reappear. Halonial branches have not hitherto been described attached to the branches of any true Lepidodendron, though in 1871 (Memoir, Part II.), the author gave reasons, based upon organisation, for insisting that Halonia was a fruit-bearing branch of a Lepido. dendroid tree. This conclusion was sustained by Mr. Carruthers in 1873 in his description of a branch belonging to a Lepdophloios. The author now figures a magnificent example, from the museum of the Leeds Philosophical Society, of a dichotomous branch of a true Lepidodendron of the type of 1. elegans and L. selaginoides. In this specimen every one of the several terminal branches bears the characteristic Halonial tubercles. The leaf scars of these latter branches have the rhomboid form, once deemed characteristic of the genus Bergeria, whilst those of the lower part of the specimen are elongated as in L. elegans, &c. These differences are not due to their appear ance in separate cortical layers of the branch, but to the more rapid growth in length of its lower part compared with its transverse growth.

The author throws some additional light upon the structure of Sporocarpum ornatum, described in Memoir, Part X., as also upon the nature of the development of the double leaf-bundles seen in transverse sections of the British Dadoxylons, described in Memoir IX. After a prolonged but vain search for a structure similar to the latter amongst the twigs of the recent Conifers, the author has at length found it in the young twigs of the Salisburia adiantifolia. Sections of these twigs made immediately below their terminal buds exhibit this germinal arrangement in the most exact manner. Pairs of foliar bundles are given off from the thin, exogenous Xylem zone which encloses the medulla, whilst at the same points the continuity of the Xylem ring is interrupted, as was al-o the case with the Dadoxylons, by an extension of the medullary cells into the primitive cortex. Sections of the petiolar bases of the leaf-scales of the bud show that these bundles enter each petiole in parallel pairs, subsequently sub-dividing and ramifying in the Adiantiform leaf. This curious resemblance between Salisburia and Dadoxylon, accompanied as it is by other resemblances in the structure of the wood, bark, and medulla, suggest the probability that our British Dadoxylon was a Carboniferous plant of Salisburian type, of which Trigonocarpum may well have been the fruit. If so, the further possi bility suggests itself that this plant may have been the ancestra! form whence sprang the Baieras of the Oolites, and, through them, the true Salisburias of Cretaceous and of recent times.

Linnean Society, May 4.—Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S., president, in the chair.-Dr. Cuthbert C. Gibbes was elected a Fellow. The Council and Fellows passed a resolution of sym pathy with the family of the late Mr. Chas. Darwin.-The Rev. R. P. Murray called attention to specimens of Carex mon tana obtained at Heathfield, Sussex, corroborating Mr. Roper's late rediscovery of the plant in that county.-Mr. J. Murison exhibited dried examples of Helipterum eximium from the Cape, of Ixodia achilleoides from South Australia, and of jungle cotton from Nagpoor.-A paper was read, on a collection of alge from the Himalayas, described by Prof. G. Dickie.-A communication was made, referring to new varieties of the sugar-cane produced by planting in apposition, as asserted by experiments of the Baron de Villa Franca and Dr. Glass of Rio de Janeiro. In correspondence which had passed between

air at Colèves, near Nyon (Switzerland), altitude 430 m., by M. Risler. The general average for three years is 3035 vols in 10,000.-Inoculability of tuberculosis by respiration of consumptives, by M. Giboux. In these experiments air expired by animals in phthisis was introduced twice a day for 105 days into a wooden case containing young rabbits, the grated apertures of the case being closed for two hours. Tubercles appeared in the rabbits' lungs. Other rabbits in a similar case, and similarly treated, except that the infected air was passed through carbolised wadding, showed no organic alteration.-Researches of pathological physiology on respiration, by MM. Grehant and Quinquaud. In the case of bronchial, pulmonary or pleural alterations, even in fever, the exhalation of carbonic acid is considerably diminished. The lesion, apparently, does not act by barring the elimination of CO2, so that this accumulates in the blood, but by interfering with general nutrition at the various points where CO, if formed.-On the persistence of effects of preventive inoculation against symptomatic charbon, and on the transmission of immunity of the mother to her product in the bovine species, by MM. Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas. The persistence of immunity for seventeen months has thus far been verified.-Observations serving in the study of phylloxera, by M. Lichtenstein. -Telegram from Cairo about the solar eclipse.-On the observations of the telescopic comet at the Imperial Observatory of Rio de Janeiro, by M. Cruls.-On a new case of formation of the dark ligament, and its utility for observation of the transit of Venus, by M. André. This was observed, during the recent eclipse, by MM. Gonessiot and Marchand, where the moon's disc came on three sun-spots. The ligament is much less dark than in the case of the transit. Here the laws of diffraction can alone explain it.-On a class of invariants relative to linear equations, by M Poincaré.-On uniform functions affected by sections, by M. Picard.-On the chemical work produced by the battery, by M. Tommasi.—On the employment of rotating discs, for the study of colour-sensations; relative intensity of colours, by M. Rosenstiehl.-Influence of introduction of the interior sea on the régime of Artesian sheets of water in the region of the Chotts, by M. Dru. These Artesian sheets would not be destroyed, but the general régime of waters in the country would be improved and protected.-Sulphhydrate of sulphide of nickel, by M. Baubigny.-Action of alkaline sulphides on proto-sulphide of tin, by M. Ditte.-Researches on cuproso-cupric sulphites, by M. Etard.-Basic salts of protoxide of manganese, by M. Gourgeu.-On the addition of hypochlorous acid to monochlorinated chloride of ally), by M. Henry.-The odd eye of Crustaceans, by M. Hartog. It is composed of three simple eyes, anterior to the brain, with optic rods reversed, receiving the conductive fibres of the optic nerve on their external border, and having the pigment layer confounded in one mass. A similar structure is found in Chaetognatha and in some Planaria. To this primitive and ancestral group of Turbellaria, the eyes of Crustacea and Chaetognatha may probably be referred. —Re searches on flagelliferous Infusorians, by M. Kunstler.-On a bed of tertiary mammalia at Aubignas (Andèche), by M. Torecarpel.-Influence of ethylic alcohol, and of essence of absinthe on the motor functions of the brain, and on those of the muscle of the life of relation, by M. Danillo. The influence of alcohol (in strong doses) referred to is similar to that of other anæsthetics (ether, chloral, morphine). Five periods are distinguished in the case of essence of absinthe, a tonic, a clonic, a choreiform, a period of delirium, and one of resolution. Thus the poisoning is like that from strychnine, in which, however, the period of delirium is absent.

VIENNA

Imperial Academy of Sciences, April 20.-L. I. Fitzinger in the chair. The following papers were read :-Fr. Brauer, on the segment mediare of Latreille.-R. Maly, on the ratio of bases and acids in blood-serum and other animal fluids; a contribution to the theory of secretion.-Fr. Emich, on the behaviour of ox-bile to Huefner's reaction, and on some properties of glycocholic acid.-T. Mauthner, on the optic-rotatory power of tyrosine and cystine.-G. Becka, on the orbit of the planet Ino (No. 173).-E. Suess, on Fr. Bassani's work, "Discrizione dei pisci fossili di Lesina."-T. V. Rohon, on the origin of the nervus acusticus in Petromyzon.-F. T. Paulsen, on the path of the air-stream in the nasal cavity of man.-O. Simony, on a series of new mathematical principles derived from experience.

May 4.-L. I. Fitzinger in the chair.- The following papers were read:-C. Doelter, on the mechanical separation of

minerals.-G. Gruss, on the orbit of the "Loreley" (165).O. Seeliger, on the history of development of the Ascidia.S. Lustgarten, on test for zodoform, naphthol, and chloroform in animal liquids and tissues.-A. Wassmuth, on the specific heat of strongly magnetised iron and on the mechanical equiva lent of a diminution of the magnetism by heat.-T. V. Tanovsky and H. v. Perger, a sealed packet containing a paper on a new reaction of the azo-bodies.-A Brezina, report on some new and little-known meteorites (part iv.)-Z. A. Skraup, synthetical experiments on the chinolin series (part iii.).-R. Wegscheider, on the derivates and constitution of opianic and hemipinic acid. -A. Boehm, on the tertiary fossils of the Isle of Madura, BERLIN

Physiological Society, May 19.-Prof. du Bois-Reymond, president.-Dr. Rabt Rückard spoke about the development of the brain in fishes, and about the import of its so-called lobi optici. He especially combated the view that the part covering these lobes is a part of the cerebrum; he is, on morphological, histiological, and embryological grounds, rather of the opinion that this portion of the brain belongs to the middle brain, and that it is an homologue to the corpora quadrigemina in the brain of the higher orders of animals. He endeavoured to establish this view by the history of the development of the brain in fishes, which he made a minute study of in the trout.-Prof. Hirsch berg laid before the Society the results of his dioptric measurements of the eyes of fishes and amphibia (pikes and frogs), as a further contribution to the comparative dioptrics of the eye. According to his measurements, the cornea in the pike has a large radius of curvature which exceeds the length of the optic axis; consequently, these animals are very myopic in the air; when, however, the eye was ophthalmometrically examined under water, the distance of distinct image formation was much greater. The eye in fishes (both those of the pike and roach were examined) behaves quite differently in air and in water. This fact is a contradiction of Herr Rateau's statements, who also found the seeing distance of fishes almost the same in both media. The eye of the frog also behaves differently in water from what it does in air; the radius of curvature of its cornea is much smaller in proportion to the length of the optic axis, and its myopia in air is much less than in fishes. It is remarkable, that in the case of the eyes of both the frog and the pike, neither a solution of atropine nor of eserine produced any alter ation in the distance of the formation of images; it is hence probable that the accommodation of the eye, if it occur at all in these animals, takes place by some other mechanism than that which affects it in the higher vertebra.

THURSDAY, JUNE 8, 1882

ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS

Ants, Bees, and Wasps; a Record of Observations on the Social Hymenoptera. By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. B.A. and L. S., &c. International Scientific Series, Vol. XL. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., 1882.)

its author did not take the opportunity of disseminating complete information upon so interesting a subject, together with the “record” of his own “observations." But this is a matter on which opinions are likely to differ, and there can be no doubt that within the scope laid down by its title, the work is admirably arranged.

We shall now proceed briefly to enumerate the principal results which this record of observations sets forth.

The longevity of ants has been found to be much greater than was formerly supposed, for while previous

insects die off every year, Sir John says:

"I have now (December, 1881) two queens which have lived with me since the year 1874. They must therefore be at least seven years old, and seem still quite strong and well. I have also some workers which I have had in my nests since 1875."

Looking to the investigations as a whole, or in the connected form in which they are now presented, we think that they deserve to be considered the most scientifically methodical, as well as in many respects the most scientifically fruitful, which have hitherto been prosecuted in the region of comparative psychology. In saying this we do not forget the investigations of Reaumur, Huber, Forel, Darwin, Moggridge, McCook, Morgan, or Spalding-all of whom we regard as holding more substantial claims to recognition in this respect than many others who might be mentioned in the same connection. But when we compare the researches of Sir John Lubbock with those of any other comparative psychologist, we find that he has the merit of showing, if not the greatest appreciation of scientific method, at least the greatest determination in applying such method to the questions with which comparative psychology has to deal. Darwin and Spalding are the only other men who in this department of science have shown an adequate estimate of the importance of experiment as distinguished from observation; but neither Darwin nor Spalding had time to experiment in psychology on a large scale—the former having had so many other lines of inductive and deductive research to attend to, and the latter having died so young. Thus it is that when we compare the investigations of Sir John Lubbock with those of other workers in the field of animal psychology, we must assign to him the first place among these workers as a scientific observer.

For the most part the volume before us is a reprint of the papers read before the Linnean Society, with only as much re-casting as is rendered necessary to give a systematic form to the book. A few coloured plates, however, are added, as well as a brief account of some of the chief facts recorded by other observers of ants. The latter, indeed, is slender, and is not even attempted in the case of bees; so that the essay is strictly, as its title proclaims, "A record of observations on the social hymenoptera"; it is not an account of all that we know concerning the psychology of these animals. As the essay is sure to attain a wide popularity, it is perhaps to be regretted that VOL. XXVI.-No. 658

The following facts and opinions on questions of morphology may be quoted ;—

"I must regard the ancestral ant as having possessed a sting, and consider that the rudimentary condition of that of Formica is due to atrophy, perhaps through disuse."

Some species have the power of ejecting their poison to a considerable distance-as much as eighteen inchesand this power might have led to the sting falling into disuse, especially if the poison is, as it appears to be, intensified in virulence as to act through the skin.”

SO

"The question arises whether the different kinds of workers are produced from different eggs. I am disposed to agree with Westwood in the opinion that the inhabitants of the nest have the instinct so to modify the circumstances producing this state of imperfection, that some neuters shall exhibit characters at variance with those of the common kind.'"

"Among bees and wasps the workers are occasionally fertile; but so far as our observations go, it is a curious fact that their eggs never produce females, either queens or workers, but always males. . . . It became therefore an interesting question whether the same is the case among ants, and my nests have supplied me with some facts bearing on the question."

These facts consist of numerous cases of fertile eggs having been laid by workers, and in every case with the result of producing a male insect.

With regard to psychology, we have only space to allude briefly to the more important results.

Experiments showed that certain individual ants in a community "are told off as foragers, and that during winter, when little food is required,' two or three are sufficient to provide it."

Observations concerning sympathy and affection went to show, that while in most cases such feelings seemed to be entirely absent, in some cases they seemed to be certainly present. This was so in an instance observed last year, of a poor ant lying on her back, and quite unable to move." Her companions moved her tenderly, for whenever Sir John "tried uncovering the nest where she was, the other ants soon carried her into the shaded part," and when they left the nest for an airing, they carried the invalid with them.

It was previously known that all the ants in the same nest recognise one another as friends. Sir John tried chloroforming and intoxicating certain individuals, to see whether this would prevent their being so recognised.

The chloroformed ants were treated by their companions as dead, but the intoxicated ones were recognised and taken into the hive, while intoxicated strangers were rejected. The manner in which recognition is effected has long been a standing puzzle to observers, and although Sir John Lubbock has not shown "how it is done," he has at least shown very conclusively how it is not done. Previous hypotheses supposed the faculty to depend on recognising personal appearance, personal scent, or on there being some pass-signal understood by all the members of a hive, and not known to members of other hives. But Sir John has found that the recognition is effected when the pupa are hatched out away from their native hive, and even when the eggs are developed in one half of a divided hive, and the matured insects then returned to the other half. He also found that the memory of companions or nest-mates extends over at least a year and

nine months.

Regarding the power of communication, the experiments went to show a strange uncertainty, though they agree with previous observations in establishing the main fact that such a power exists. Thus, for instance, when a dead fly was pinned down so that the ant which found it could not drag it towards the nest, she returned to the nest and procured assistance. This experiment was repeated, with small variation, a great number of times, and certainly proves a power of communication at least to the extent of "follow me." Moreover, by an ingenious device with three parallel tape bridges extending from a nest to three similar glasses, one empty, another holding a few larvæ, and the third filled with many larvæ, Sir John was able to show the interesting fact that ants can give definite information to one another as to locality, without requiring merely to lead the way. For he took two ants and placed one of them to the glass with many larvæ, and the other to that with a few. Each of them took a larva, carried it to the nest along the respective tapes, returned for another, and so on. After each journey he put another larva in the glass with a few larvæ to replace the one which was taken away. Every new ant which came to either of the glasses was imprisoned till the end of the experiment. Such being the conditions, it was observed that no ants went along the tape bridge to the empty glass, 104 ants went to the glass with a few larvæ, and 304 to the glass with the many larvæ. Thus it seems that the two original (marked) ants were able to tell their companions, not only where larvæ were to be found, but even where the largest store was to be met with.

Concerning the powers of special sense, a large number of experiments proved that ants are able to appreciate colour, and when their nests are covered with slips of stained glass, analysis of some of these experiments showed that there had congregated "under the red 890, under the green 544, under the yellow 495, and under the violet only 5." Other experiments showed that red light was the same to them as darkness, or, at least, that about the same proportion of ants congregated under red glass as congregated under a slip of porcelain. With reference to the parts of the spectrum invisible to our eyes, other experiments proved "that the limits of vision of ants at the red end of the spectrum are approximately the same as ours, that they are not sensitive to the ultra-red rays;

but, on the other hand, that they are very sensitive to the ultra-violet rays." A layer of sulphate of quinine or of bisulphide of carbon had the effect, as might be supposed from the latter statement, of rendering the ultra-violet rays invisible, or less obnoxious to the ants. Conversely, a saturated solution of chrome alum, and chromium chloride in a layer so thick that in the darkness beneath it the ants could not be seen, had the effect of inducing the ants to escape from its luminosity to their eyes, and to go beneath the bisulphide of carbon; so that, "though to our eyes the bisulphide of carbon is absolutely transparent, while the chrome alum and chromium chloride are very dark, to the ants, on the contrary, the former appears to intercept more light than a layer of the latter." A number of elaborate experiments on the sense of hearing produced only negative results, though from other considerations (chiefly anatomical) Sir John concludes, "On the whole, though the subject is still involved in doubt, I am disposed to think that ants perceive sounds which we cannot hear." Experiments on the sense of smell showed that the estimate previously formed by naturalists of its excellence was not exaggerated.

A number of experiments on the general intelligence of ants in overcoming difficulties of various kinds which Sir John devised for them, went to indicate a poverty of resources scarcely to have been expected; but it must be remembered that this only shows that there are ants and ants, for other trustworthy observers give wonderful accounts of the high intelligence of certain foreign species. On the subject of way-finding, there are also many interesting observations, which show that sight is not of nearly so much service as smell, although it is of much use in giving them their general "sense of direction;" for they observe the direction in which light is shining, guide themselves accordingly, and lose themselves if turned partly round on a rotating table in the dark.

We must not leave these chapters on ants without referring to one on the relation of these insects to plants, and another on their relation to animals. It is of importance to many species of plants that they should not be visited by ants, as the presence of these insects would tend to keep away bees, &c., which are required to fertilise the flowers. Consequently, these species of plants present a great variety of contrivances to exclude the ants, such as water-traps, slippery surfaces, narrow passages, sharply-curved stalks, hairs, viscid secretions, &c. Instances of such contrivances are given, and the general conclusion is stated that "though ants have not influenced the present condition of the vegetable kingdom to the same extent as bees, they have also had a very considerable effect upon it in various ways." Concerning the relation of ants to other animals, the most interesting addition to our knowledge which Sir John has made is that of Lasius flavus farming the eggs of aphides. For "here are aphides, not living in the ants' nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of plants. The eggs are laid early in October on the food-plant of the insect. They are of no direct use to the ants, yet they are not left where they are laid, exposed to the severity of the weather and to innumerable dangers, but brought into their nests by the ants, and tended by them with the utmost care through the long winter months until the following March, when the young ones are brought out and again placed on the