entrance-fee to a fair, came in contact with the wire conducting the electricity of a Brush machine to the lamps, and were killed instantly.

No

PROF. MAGGI has recently made a protistological analysis of the water of Lake Maggiore, taken at a depth of about 200 feet between Angera and Arona. There is a proposal, it is known, to supply Milan with potable water from this source. injurious bacteria or flagellata were detected. The small deposit, probably from the bottom of the lake, is pronounced innocuous; it consists partly of harmless inorganic matter in reduction, and incapable of further evolution. The few diatom scales in it are harmless, being pure silica. The very small number of live organisms, as an Amabı radiosa, Auerb., some Diatoms, and Chlorococcum vulgare, Grév., indicate that the water is pure; for otherwise the`r life would be impossible. The Diatoms and Chlorococcum, feeding on inorganic matter, cannot serve as criteria of the presence of putrescible substances. These organisms were always found alive, even several months after extraction, so that their presence in small quantity could not be very hurtful; still it would be well to purify the water containing them. In fine, Prof. Maggi pronounces the water in question serviceable for industrial and domestic use. (For further

details of this research we must refer to the Rendiconti of the Reale Istituto Lombardo, vol. xv. fasc. ix., x.).

IN an article on Foreign Chinese Literature the North China Herald, in a recent issue, refers to the translation of modern scientific works into Chinese. In May, 1877, a Committee of the general body of missionaries in China was appointed to superintend the publication of a series of scientific and educational works in the Chinese language for use among the Chinese. This project has been carried out ever since, and a large number of text-books are now undergoing translation at the hands of Sinologues. The majority of the workers are missionaries, but their ranks have been largely recruited from other sources. The subjects undertaken are of a most comprehensive nature. They include treatises on logic, mental and moral philosophy, political economy, philology, jurisprudence, the philology and structure of plants, anatomy, mathematical physics, church history, meteor. ology, astronomy, chemistry, trigonometry, algebra, natural philosophy, zoology, ethnology, mineralogy, physical and political geography, history, besides other works. The undertaking of this large and important series of works reflects the highest credit on the industry and intelligence of the missionary body. But the work of putting the Chinese in possession of the results of Western knowledge has not been confined to the missionaries. The Inspector-General of Chinese Customs, Sir Robert Hart, who is known as an indefatigable educator of the Chinese, is now superintending the translation of a series of scientific text-books into the Chinese vernacular. The Imperial College at Peking is assisting in the work.

A MEETING of Japanese literati, versed in European, Chinese, and Japanese languages, was recently held in Tokio. Among those present were the officers of the education and other departments, who regret the confusion and intricacies of the Japanese spoken and written languages. The object of the meeting was to consider the best steps to be taken for purifying the Japanese language from all foreign elements. After a lengthy discussion it was decided to publish grammars and other books in Kana, or the syllabary system, without the employment of Chinese characters. A periodical is also to be devoted to the furtherance of this scheme. The project seems a visionary one. The Chinese element in the Japanese language is a very ancient and powerful one. All Japanese philosophy, much of its religion, its arts and sciences, have come from China, and have brought their terminology with them. Even at the present day, when the Japanese want a name for western inventions, for

steam, railways, &c., they go to China for them. Not many years since, a Japanese gentleman, who has since risen to a high position in the service of his country, gravely proposed the abolition of all kinds of Japanese and Chinese writing, and the application of Latin letters to the Japanese language. This reform is more radical than that now proposed, but it would seem almost as easy of accomplishment.

WE have received from New South Wales an interesting Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum for 1881. This Museum is open on Sundays, when the attendance is very large indeed. The total number of visitors was 115,655, being an increase of 3192 on the number for 1880. The number who attended on Sundays was 41,660, being an increase of 8963 on the number for 1880, while the attendance on week-days decreased by 5771. The average daily attendance on week-days was 281, and on Sundays 801. The collections made during the dredging excursion to Port Stephens in November, 1880, were in some orders and families very extensive, but they have not yet been entirely worked out. The crustacea have been determined by Mr. Haswell, and the mollusca by Mr. Brazier. The vertebrates are all well known species, excepting some small deep-sea fishes. Most of the specimens were obtained within Port Stephens itself; and, with some differences in detail, they represent a fauna very similar to that of Port Jackson. The total number of species (invertebrata) procured may be roughly estimated at 700. Of these the mollusca, chiefly of minute kinds, comprise 450 species (1500 specimens), forty-seven of which are new to science. There were obtained also many fine specimens of sponges, of species hitherto unrepresented in the Museum. Among the corals there are several rare species, and some are new. Many other important additions have been made to the Museum. Among the collections purchased have been many very valuable ethnological specimens from the South Sea Islands, of a kind which it is daily becoming more difficult to obtain. A collection of fishes from New Guinea was also purchased. The Trustees are about to publish a Catalogue of the Crustacea of the Australian Seas. This work has been prepared by Mr. W. A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc., and will be of great scientific value, containing, as it does, descriptions of all known Australian species, many of which are new to science. A Catalogue of the collection of fossils has also been prepared. Both of these will shortly leave the printer's hands. Mr. Brazier has been engaged in cataloguing the collections of shells. The most important work undertaken by the Trustees during the year has been the renewal of the exploration of the caves of the Colony ; for which object a special sum of money was voted by Parlia ment. The bones obtained there are all of recent origin, belong. ing to still existing species of the kangaroo, wallaby, wombat, opossum, &c. The Siluro-Devonian fossils, however, obtained from the limestone rocks are of considerable interest, and will form a valuable addition to the Museum collection. In one cf the caves at Wellington, known as the Breccia Cave, above 1000 specimens were obtained, many of them of great interest; among others an almost perfect ramus of a Thylacoleo with the articulating condyle; and the toe bones of a large species of Echidna. In another cave the tooth of a Diprotodon and some bones of small marsupials were found. In some other shafts the bones were larger and more perfect than those in the Breccia Cave. Among the most important discoveries were portions of the pelvis of an immense kangaroo, caudal and cervical vertebræ ; jaws of large marsupials, especially five rami of Thylacoleo nearly perfect, and many good teeth. A list of the most important specimens discovered is contained in the Appendix.

WITH regard to the doctoring of wines by the process known as plâtrage (i.e. adding plaster of Paris, or calcium sulphate, which decomposes the potassium tartrates, producing sulphate of potassium, and preventing much of the astringent and colour

ing matter from passing into solution), the Canton of Berne in September, 1879, issued an ordinance, fixing as an upper limit for potassium sulphate in wines so doctored, 2 grammes per litre. Various complaints then arose from merchants, who thought the regulation too stringent; and the Direction of Internal Affairs nominated a Commission, consisting of Herren Lichtheim, Luch inger, and Nencki to study the subject afresh. In their report (Journal für Prakt. Chem.) they come to the conclusions (1) that the perniciousness of plastered wines even when they contain more than 2 gr. sulphate of potassium per litre, is far from being demonstrated indisputably. On the other hand it remains proved that wines strongly plastered have sometimes caused slight accidents, and it results from our theoretic study. that the prolonged use of such a drink cannot be without prejudice to health; (2) that we therefore do not think it well to leave the trade in plastered wines without any contiol. While recognising the difficulty of fixing an absolute limit for plastering, they approve as sufficient that of the ordinance in question; on the one hand, guarantees the public against illne-s from use of wines too much plastered, and on the other it is not a heavier fetter for the producer than similar prescriptions in France, where the interest in tolerance of plastered wines is vastly greater. Each buyer who has ordered a natural wine should have the right to refuse any wine containing more than o'6 gr. neutral sulphate of potassium per litre. The reporters are unable to answer a question as to the action of plastered white wines on the system as compared with red.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus) from India, presented by Mr. F. Logie Pirie; two Silver Pheasants (Euplocamus nycthemerus) from China, presented by Mrs. Hames; a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), European, presented by Col. A. Brooksbank; a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) captured at sea off Ceylon, presented by Mr. Tom Broune; six Common Kingfishers (Alcedo ispida), British, presented by Mr. T. A. A. Burnaby; two Slow-worms (Anguis fragilis), two Common Vipers (Vipera berus), British, presented by Mr. Charles Taylor; a Moustache Monkey (Cercopithecus cephus) from West Africa, two Common Ravens (Corvus corax), British, two Common Boas (Boa-constrictor) from South America, deposited; two Shags or Green Cormorants (Phalacrocorax cristatus), European, purchased.

CLIMATE IN TOWN AND COUNTRY1

THE speaker began by describing the construction and uses of

the instruments with which he had studied the conditions of climate, for many years past, in various parts of Europe. For the determination of sun temperature, he used a thermometer technically known as the blackened bulb in vacuo laid in full sunshine upon a sheet of white paper. The shade or air temperature was measured by an ordinary thermometer with a clear glass bulb and a scale engraved upon the stem. This thermometer was placed upon the same sheet of paper, and was shaded by a small white paper arch which admitted of a free circulation of air around the bulb.

He then explained the terms "sun temperature,' ""shade temperature," " and "solar intensity." By shade temperature is meant the temperature of free air in full sunshine. Strictly it ought to be ascertained without any shade at all; for as soon as a shade is produced, conditions are introduced which often entirely baffle the object of the observer. The shade of a parasol has a different temperature from the shade of a tree, and this, again, differs widely from that of a house. The temperature of the shade of a sheet of tinfoil is quite different from that of a sheet of writing paper. Indeed it may be truly said that every shade has its own peculiar temperature. The following table shows the effect of the area of shade, and of the quality of the shading material :

:

Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, February 10, 1882, by E. Frankland, Esq., D.C.L., F.R S., M.R.I., Professor of Chemistry in the Normal School of Science, South Kensington Museum.

Thus shade temperatures, measured during 1 hours of uninterrupted sunshine in the middle of the day, and within a few yards of the same spot, differed by no less than 25°*7 C. These observations were, however, made at Pontresina, 5,915 feet above the sea-level, and so wide a range does not occur at lower altitudes.

The most effective shading material is, obviously, that which most perfectly reflects solar heat; and of all materials with which he had experimented white paper was found to be the best, white linen and zinc-white being nearly equal to it. The most trustworthy hade thermometer, therefore, is one having its bulb covered with a thin layer of one of these materials; or the naked layer may be shaded by a small arch of hite paper. The term 66 sun temperature," as commonly employed, has a very vague meaning. If a body could be placed in sunlight under such circumstances as to absorb heat rays and emit none, its temperature would soon rise to that of the sun itself. But, as all good absorbers of heat are also good radiators, the elevation of temperature caused by the exposure of even good absorbers to sunlight is comparatively small. Thus an isolated thermome ter, with blackened glass bulb, placed in sunshine, will rarely rise more thar 10° C. above the temperature which it marks when screened from direct sunlight. Under these circumstances, however, the thermometer loses heat not merely by radiation, but also by actual contact with the surrounding cold air. If the lat ter source of loss be obviated, a much higher sun temperature is obtained. Thus, the blackened bulb enclosed in a vacuous clear glass globe will sometimes, when placed in sunlight, rise as much as 60° C. above the shade temperature, and a still higher degree of heat may be obtained by exposing to the sun's rays the naked blackened bulb of a thermometer enclosed in a wooden box padded with black cloth, and closed by a lid of clear plate glass. Thus he obtained with such a box, on the 22nd of December, in Switzerland, when the air was considerably below the freezing point, a temperature of 105° C., and a still higher temperature could doubtless be obtained by surrounding the thermometer with a vacucus globe before enclosing it in the padded box. These widely different temperatures, produced under different corditions by the solar rays, show that such observations can be com parative only when the thermometer employed to mea ure them is always surrounded by the same conditions. All the sun tem peratures here mentioned were measured when the "blackened bulb in vacuo" was laid horizontally upon a sheet of white paper with its stem at right angles to the direction of the sun's

rays.

"Solar intensity" is relative only, and means the number of degrees through which the sun raises the temperature of a blackened bulb in vacuo over the shade temperature. Hence the two temperatures must be observed simultaneously, which is a labo rious operation when continued half-hourly throughout the day. By the use of a peculiar self-registering differential thermometer, however, which he had recently described to the Royal Society (Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1882, p. 331), the y aximum solar intensity during the day is recorded by ore reading only. The solar intensities commented upon in this discourse were ascertained by subtracting, in each case, the shade temperature from the sun temperature taken synchronously. The precautions necessary are described in the paper to the Royal Society just quoted.

The chief things affecting climate are the following:-(1) The sun. (2) Land and water-ocean and atmospheric currents. (3) Aspect-slope of ground, exposure or shelter. (4) Nature of surface. (5) Reflection from land and water. (6) Rain and clouds-suspended matter in the air. (7) Latitude-incidence of solar rays, thickness of air. (8) Presence or absence of aqueous vapour. Of these, the first three are obvious and require no comment. The remainder are less well known, but their im portance demands our special attention.

Climate, or rather genial climate, is ultimately resolvable into two prime factors-sun-warmth and air-warmth. The amount of un-warmth (assuming the sun's heat to be constant) depends upon two things only-length of day, and quantity of suspended matter and aqueous vapour in the air. The warmth of the air depends upon contact with matter heated by the sun's rays and upon the stoppage of radiation from the earth by aque‹ us vapour.

White paper...

67.7

These results may be imitated with the powerful light from a Siemens' dynamo-machine. [Experiments shown.]

The warmth of the air over these surfaces was in the inverse order, caoutchouc heating the air most, white paper and snow least. The nearer the colour of the ground approaches to white, the more genial will be the climate from radiation and the cooler will be the air. The nearer it gets to black, the warmer will be the air and the less will temperature be due to radiation. Dark surfaces warm the air; light surfaces keep it cool, but warm the body by radiant reflection. The difference is substantially the same out of doors as that produced indoors by a close stove on the one hand, and an open fire on the other; but calm air is required for the enjoyment of radiant heat.

The sun's radiant heat may be greatly reinforced by reflection from surrounding objects. There are two kinds of reflectors; those which, like white paper, white linen, and whitewash, scatter the solar heat in all directions, and those which, mirrorlike, reflect it in one direction only. To the former belong snow, chalk, light-coloured sand, and light-coloured earth; to the latter, water. The former are useful on whatever side they may be, the latter only when they are between the observer and the sun. The observations in the following table illustrate this effect of reflection from surrounding objects :

Proportion of direct to reflected heat.

...

...

100: 68.

100: 40 to 50. 100: 20 to 30.

When the sun was higher than 30° the reflected heat was hardly perceptible. Hence this reflection is of the greatest value in winter, when it is most wanted, and it also tends to equalise temperature during the day; for in the early morning and evening, when the sun is low, and his direct heat is small, the reflected heat is greatest.

The bearing of these observations upon winter refuges for invalids is obvious. While the primary conditions to be secured must ever be fine weather and a sheltered position, the next in importance is, doubtless, exposure all day long to reflected, as well as direct, solar radiation. To realise this, a southern aspect and a considerable expanse of water or snow are necessary. and it is important that the sanitarium should be considerably and somewhat abruptly elevated above the reflecting surface, so that it may receive, throughout the entire day, the uninterrupted reflection of the sun's rays. At or near the sea level, however, it is impossible, owing to solid and liquid mátters floating in the lower regions of the atmosphere, to enjoy anything approaching to a uniform temperature from sunrise to sunset.

Although this suspended matter exists even at great altitudes, the bulk of it floats below 5,000 feet, and whilst only one-sixth of the atmosphere is below this height, there is probably much more than one-half of the suspended matter at a lower elevation. As might be expected, therefore, solar intensity is much greater at high than at low elevations, although the temperature of the air continually decreases as it is further removed from the earth's surface. The following tables contain observations illustrative of this point :