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THE

REFUTATION OF DARWINISM:

AND THE

CONVERSE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT, &C.

CHAPTER I.

DARWIN'S THEORY.

To appreciate a Refutation, it is necessary to know

exactly what it is which is refuted. To meet this need, we commence by giving Darwin's theory.

Mr. Darwin's theory of the Origin of Species, as propounded in his works " The Origin of Species," and "Animals and Plants Under Domestication," is as follows:

As Mr. Darwin professes to base his theory, not upon mere speculation as to the processes which have obtained in the past, but upon obvious inferences from the actual behaviour of things in the present, and from processes now in operation under our very eyes, he takes the reader directly to the barnyard, to the garden, and to the field. Here, under domestication, the individuals of each species, display great variation and

improvement, compared with the state, in which they were, when first placed under cultivation. The phenomena, here observed, apparently imply an universal tendency to vary, which ever seems to manifest itself, under certain changes in the circumstances; that is, that while the offspring of animals and of plants, taken from the state of nature, are, in all their main characteristics or features, like their parents, they nevertheless improve, more or less, upon their parents; and vary or differ in character, to some degree, from each other. These variations, and improvements, are also transmitted to the descendants of the varying individuals, which also go on, from generation to generation, superadding to the measure of variation, first displayed. For, when a modification is acquired by any individual, the law of inheritance transmits the acquired character to the offspring.

Variation, as Darwin remarks, is everywhere seen, under domestication. Scarcely any species, or individual of any species, either animal or vegetable, has escaped this tendency. Some species, such as the Pigeon and the Fowl, display more variation and improvement than others. Some have developed many important organs not present in the same species, under nature. Other species have developed few, or no new features; yet have improved wonderfully and variedly, in the quality and size of the characteristics they possessed when first placed under domestication. The improvements, arising in some species, have been divided or apportioned among different, and widely distinct varieties. In other species, the improvements

appearing, have been developed in all of the varieties, and each of those varieties is marked solely by the high degree of development to which some one of its features has been carried. Where, in any species, all of the characters arising by variation, have been fixed and retained in each variety, with no one character extraordinarily well developed, in comparison with the others—the breeds or varieties of the species, being distinguishable from each other merely by minute differences in the size or proportion of the features developed-there results convergence of character; which is less frequently met with, than is divergence of character. An instance in point, with respect to the diversity, or divergence of character above mentioned, is the Pigeon; each of whose principal varieties, has some one feature peculiarily characteristic of it. An instance of convergence of character, which Darwin gives, is the Cow, whose varieties, or breeds, have peculiarities which are not very distinct.

Variation also results, through the loss or reduction of some characters which the species had, when taken from the state of nature. Variation, of this kind, is exemplified in the case of the tailless breeds, the earless breeds, turn-spit dogs, niata cattle (with their lips shortened) and, in the case of the "improved" Pig, whose tusks have been greatly reduced, whose bristles and hair have been well-nigh lost, whose legs have been reduced to the smallest possible size compatible with locomotion, and the front of whose head has been rendered short and concave.

While some species, under domestication, such as

the goose, the turkey, the hive-bee, &c., have not developed features, in their individuals, sufficiently marked and varied, to serve as the foundation of any very distinct varieties, a multitude of other species display modifications which form the distinguishing characters of very widely divergent breeds. Many of the modifications, or improvements, which have arisen under man's care, and which were not known to the species, when taken from the state of nature, have led to the formation of varieties, in such species, with distributed differences distinguishing them, greater even than those differences which distinguish one species from another; and, in some cases, greater even than those which mark one genus from another.

The distinction between species and varieties, should be thoroughly appreciated, by the reader, that he may understand Darwin's argument. A species is generally taken to be, that class of organisms which are known to have a common descent from some ancient progenitor, and which are capable of indefinitelycontinued, fertile reproduction among each other; but which, on being crossed with individuals of another species, are either sterile, or give birth to offspring, called hybrids, which are sterile. Thus, a horse, and an ass, are taken to be distinct species. A mule, however, is a hybrid-being the result of a cross between the two species—and, as is well known, is sterile. A variety, or breed, on the other hand, is one of a class of organisms, within a species, distinguished from its fellow varieties of the same species, by the possession of some peculiar, negative or positive character; and

which is capable of indefinitely-continued, fertile reproduction, not only among its own individuals, but, peculiarly so, with the individuals of any other variety of the same species. Thus, an Arab horse, the English race horse, the dray-horse, the Shetland pony, &c., represent varieties, or breeds, of the species horse: and a Fantail, a Pouter, a Carrier, a Runt, a Barb, a Jacobin, &c., represent varieties of the Pigeon species.

The variation, modification, or improvement, occurring under domestication, Darwin represents truly, as matter of fact, to be very great. It is proved, by him, conclusively, that there is scarcely any part of the organization of any individual of any species of plant or animal, under domestication, which is not susceptible of some, and, in the majority of instances, of great modification. Even the bones, and the internal organs— the liver, the kidneys, the vertebræ, the reproductive organs, the œsophagus, the intestinal canal—have been shown to be greatly modified. Cases of increase, and of decrease in the number of the vertebræ, have been demonstrated to be of frequent occurrence. There are improvements, or variations, in the legs, in the tongue, in the eyes, in the skin, in the hair, in the feathers, in the hoofs, in the horns, in the tail, and in the wings. There are the greatest variations in the head. Even the teeth have varied greatly, in number, size, and other characters.

Modifications, most favorable, and most different, in character, have arisen, in a variety of ways, with birds of the same species; in their head, or crest feathers, in

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