China; and a Notice of Titsingh, by Eyriès, in Biographie | Titus fell dangerously ill after the death of his unfortunate Universelle.) friend, it was said and believed that he had drunk a part of that deadly potion by which Britannicus perished. Titus afterwards erected two statues to the memory of the companion of his youth. Possessed of uncommon beauty and vigour, and extraordinary talents, Titus distinguished himself at an early age. The first campaigns which he made as tribunus militum were in Britannia and Germany. He first married Aricidia Tertulla, the daughter of a Roman knight, and after her death, Marcia Furnilla, who was of a noble family, but from whom he was divorced some time after she had borne him a daughter. Titus became afterwards quaestor. The Jews, having been oppressed by Gessius Florus, revolted in 66 A.D. and defeated Cestius Gallus, the proconsul of Syria, but they were beaten by M. Licinius Mucianus, the new proconsul of Syria, and T. Vespasianus, the father of Titus, who was the commander of the Roman army, which consisted of three legions. One of these legions was commanded by Titus, who showed as much military skill as personal courage, especially in the siege and capture of the towns of Taricheae and Gamala (67 A.D.). During his sojourn in Palestine he fell in love with Berenice, the daughter of Herod Agrippa. [BERENICE (6).]

TITTMANN, JOHANN AUGUST HEINRICH, one of the most distinguished German theologians of modern times, was born on the 1st of August, 1773, at Langensalza, where his father, Carl Christian Tittmann, was then preacher. Young Tittmann was originally of a very weakly constitution, but he gained strength as he grew older, especially from the time that he lived at Wittenberg, where his father was appointed præpositus and professor in the year 1775. His extraordinary talents enabled him to enter upon the study of theology and philosophy at Wittenberg as early as the year 1788, after he had the year before published a Latin essay, 'De Virgilio Homerum imitante,' Wittenberg, 1787. On completing his studies there, he went to Leipzig in 1792, where he began his career as academical teacher on the 15th of May, 1793. His talents and the extensive knowledge he possessed at this early age would have made him the first theologian of his time, if he had not been frequently drawn away from his regular studies, and occupied with different subjects. Nevertheless he distinguished himself so much, that in the year 1795 he was appointed morning-preacher (Frühprediger) to the university, and the year after professor extraordinary of philosophy, and in 1800 of theology. In 1805 he was made a doctor of divinity, and obtained the fourth ordinary professorship of theology, and in 1818 he became first professor of theology in the university of Leipzig. During the last years of his life he was dean of the cathedral of Meissen. He died, in consequence of a cold he took in 1828, and of which he never recovered, on the 31st of December, 1831.

In the mean time the emperor Nero was murdered, and Galba succeeded (69 A.D.). In consequence of this event. T. Vespasianus sent his son Titus to Rome, in order to gain the favour of the new emperor. Perhaps also Vespasianus wished to be informed of Galba's intention with regard to the war in Palestine, the command of the forces employed there being an office by which Vespasianus had acquired great influence in the East. (Tacitus, Hist., ii. 1, As an academical teacher Tittmann distinguished him- and the notes to this passage in the edition of Gronovius, self by his acuteness, sound judgment, and by the sim-ii., p. 127.) The people said that Titus had some hope of plicity and clearness with which he treated his subject. It being adopted by Galba, who was old and without issue; was perhaps owing to the variety of subjects on which he but although this motive of his going to Rome is rejected had tried his strength, that in his later years he was found by Tacitus, the mere existence of such a rumour proves competent to undertake the most varied business in which that Titus had already attracted the public attention. he was employed by his government. At the congress of When Titus arrived at Corinth he was informed that Galba Vienna, which he attended for some time, he spoke with had been murdered (15th of January, 69 A.D.), and that the great frankness, and particularly exerted himself to realise imperial power was disputed by Vitellius and Otho. This his favourite plan of uniting the German Protestants, and event perplexed him. His commission being to congratugiving to their body a new ecclesiastical constitution. But late Galba, he could not expect to be well received by his object was not attained. During the last years of his Vitellius, by whose instigation Galba had been massacred; life he was a member of the first chamber of the Saxon nor did he deem it prudent to adhere to either of the imdeputies, in which he represented the university of Leipzig, perial rivals before he had taken the advice of his father. and often exercised great influence by his ability and his He therefore returned to Judæa. There was a rumour that powers as a speaker. his love for Berenice was the secret cause of his return; but however strong his passion was, it never prevented him from doing his duty. On his way from Greece to Syria he landed on Cyprus, and there consulted the oracle in the temple of Venus of Paphos. The answer was favourable with regard to his voyage, and highly flattering to his ambition: Sostratus, the priest of the temple and reporter of the oracle, promised him the empire. (Tacitus, Hist., ii. 24; Suetonius, Titus, c. 6.)

The numerous writings of Tittmann are distinguished by great clearness of style, those written in German, as well as those in Latin. The following are the most important for the theological student:- Encyclopädie der Theologischen Wissenschaften,' Leipzig, 1798, 8vo.; Theocles, ein Gespräch über den Glauben an Gott,' Leipzig, 1799, 8vo.; Ideen zu einer Apologie des Glaubens,' Leipzig, 1799, 8vo.; Theon, oder über unsere Hoffnungen nach dem Tode,' Leipzig, 1801; Lehrbuch der Homiletik,' Breslau, 1804, 8vo.; Pragmatische Geschichte der Theologie und Religion in der Protestantischen Kirche während der zweiten Hälfte des 18ten Jahrhunderts' (of this excellent work only the first volume appeared, Breslau, 1805, 8vo.); Ueber Supranaturalismus, Rationalismus, und Atheismus,' Leipzig, 1816, 8vo.; Ueber Vereinigung der Evangelischen Kirchen,' Leipzig, 1818; Die Evangelische Kirche im Jahre 1530 und 1830,' Leipzig, 1830, 8vo. Tittmann also edited the Greek text of the New Testament, Leipz., 1824, 12mo., which has often been reprinted, and Zonaras and Photius's Greek Lexicon, Leipzig, 1808, 4to.; but of this work only two volumes appeared, which contain the Lexicon of Zonaras. He also wrote a great number of Latin dissertations in programmes and on other occasions, which were edited after his death by Hahn, under the title, Opuscula varii Argumenti, maximam partem dogmatici, apologetici, et historici,' Leipzig, 1833, 8vo. Another Latin work, De Synonymis in Novo Testamento,' was edited by Becher, Leipzig, 1832, 8vo. Information about the author is given in the prefaces to these last-mentioned publications, and in the Conversations Lexikon, V. Tittmann.'

TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIA'NUS, the son of the emperor Vespasianus, was born on the 29th of December, 40 A.D. He received his education together with young Britannicus, who was poisoned by Nero in 55 A.D., and as P. C., No. 1553,

Titus was one of the leaders of the new revolution by which Vitellius lost his power a short time after his victory over his competitor Otho at Brixellum. Full of filial admiration for the character of his father, Titus endeavoured to remove the only obstacle to his accession, which might have frustrated their plans, notwithstanding Vespasianus was at the head of three legions and a strong body of auxiliaries. This obstacle was, a serious misunderstanding which existed between Vespasianus and Mucianus, the proconsul of Syria. Titus succeeded in reconciling them. Their difference had chiefly a political character, yet Titus, by the mildness of his manner and by the modesty of his persuasion, brought together two highlygifted men who were divided by the most intractable of passions. Supported by Mucianus, by Tiberius Alexander, and by Titus, Vespasianus was proclaimed emperor by the army in the East, while his brother Flavius Sabinus occupied for him the Capitol in Rome, and compelled Vitellius to lay down the imperial diadem. [VESPASIANUS; TIBERIUS ALEXANDER; VITELLIUS.] Vespasianus left Judæa for Rome, and the command of the army of Judæa and the continuation of the war devolved upon Titus. Domitianus, the younger brother of Titus, having incurred the displeasure of his father, Titus interceded for him with brotherly affection. (Tacitus, Hist., iv. 51, 52.)

The army in Judæa, of which Titus was now the commander, consisted of six legions, twenty cohorts of allies, VOL. XXV.-C

him ine nighest satisfaction. (2 Cor., vii. 6-13.) Titus also appears to have been the bearer of the Apostle's second letter to the Corinthians, when he was charged to excite them to finish their collections for the poor converts in Judæa, which they had begun during his former visit. From A.D. 58, when we suppose him to have been the bearer of St. Paul's second epistle to the Corinthians, to A.D. 62, we hear nothing of him: in the latter year, in all probability he was left by St. Paul in Crete, to set in order the things that were wanting, and to ordain elders in every city. (Titus, i. 4.) This year was the date of St. Paul's release from his first confinement at Rome, when he is supposed to have touched at Crete, and made some converts there, on his way from Italy to Judæa. Subsequently to this, Titus was requested by St. Paul (iii. 12) to visit him at Nicopolis in Epirus, and it seems that he was also with him during his second residence at Rome. (2 Timothy, iv. 10.) We have no certain information as to the time and place of Titus's death; but according to an antient tradition, he lived to the age of ninety-four years, and died and was buried in Crete. The date of the Epistle has been a subject of much controversy, some placing it as early as A.D. 52, and others as late as A.D. 65. From the striking verbal resemblances between it and the first epistle to Timothy, it is not improbable that they were written about the same time, and while the same ideas and phrases were present to the author's mind. The genuineness and authenticity of the Epistle have never been disputed.

St. Paul's design in writing it was to instruct Titus in the discharge of the duties of his ministry as head of the church in Crete. Accordingly in chap. í. he gives Titus instructions concerning the ordination of elders, who were to be appointed for every city, and describes what qualifications they should possess, and also directs him to oppose the Judaising teachers of Christianity, who seem to have been numerous in the island. In chap. ii. St. Paul informs Titus what precepts he was to inculcate, according to the age and circumstances of those whom he had to teach, and admonishes him to show himself a pattern of all good works, and an example of the doctrines which he taught.

In chap. iii. he teaches Titus to inculcate obedience to principalities and powers, in opposition to the Jews, who thought it an indignity to submit to idolatrous magistrates; and also that he should enforce gentleness and meekness towards all men. He then concludes with a request that Titus would inculcate the necessity of good works, and avoid foolish questions; an injunction of the same kind as St. Paul gave to Timothy.

·

For the undesigned coincidences between this Epistle and the Acts of the Apostles,' see Paley, Hora Paulinæ,' pp. 357-367. See also Horne's Introduction to the Critical Study of the Scriptures,' vol. iv., p. 387; Macknight on the New Testament, vol. iii.; Collyer's Sacred Interpreter.'

6

TIT-WARBLERS, Mr. Swainson's name for a subgenus of his subfamily Pariance [TITMICE], and considered by him as the second or typical division of the whole group. The species of this subgenus (Sylvicola) are, he observes, the true Tit-Warblers of America, so closely resembling the Worm-eaters (Vermivora, Sw.), that many writers have placed both in the same genus; but they may, he remarks, be readily detected by a slightly-arched bill, notched near the end of the upper mandible. The slender structure of their feet, the pointed form of their wings, and the scattered weak bristles of the mouth,' says Mr. Swainson in continuation, suggest the idea that the mode of catching their prey must not be unlike that adopted by the true flycatchers, and such accordingly turns out to be the fact; they are, in short, lively, active, gaily-coloured little birds, continually hunting after sedentary insects, and pursuing such as fly from bough to bough; their habits thus forming a singular union of those of the Wood-Warbler, the Tits, and the Flycatchers: so close indeed is this analogy, that Meyer has confounded them with the first, Linnæus and Buffon with the second, and even Wilson considers some as belonging to the third of these families. Nor was the great American ornitho.ogist very far from the truth, since they actually pass into a subgenus which certainly would stand in the old Linnæan group of Muscicapa.' (Classification of Birds.)

The following is Mr. Swainson's definition of the subgenus Sylvicola, placed by him between Dumecola and

Vermivora, under the genus Sylvicola (Fly-catching
Warblers) :-
Bill very slender, acutely conic; the tip of the upper
mandible with an obsolete notch; base with a few weak
bristles. Wings lengthened, pointed; the three first
quills nearly equal. Tail nearly even; the feathers ending
in soft points. Feet as in Setophaga.
Example, Sylvicola minuta.

Mr. Swainson refers, for a figure and description of this species, to 'Zool. Ill.,' i., pl. 139. At the place referred to we find the Grey-backed Warbler, Sylvia plumbea, with the following description and figure:

Description.-Blue-grey, beneath golden yellow; back olive; wing-coverts tipped with white.

Mr. Swainson states that this bird is a native of Brazil, from whence it was received by Mr. Leadbeater.

Mr. Swainson also refers to Sylvicola pusilla, Wil., pl. 38, f. 3.

TIVERTON, a borough and market-town in the hundred of the same name, is situated at the confluence of the rivers Exe and Loman, 169 miles south-west of London, and 14 miles north of Exeter. It derives its name (formerly Twyfordton, and now, by an easy gradual alteration, Tiverton) from its situation between the two antient fords, through the Exe on the west, and the Loman on the east. The hundred of Tiverton is described in Domesday Book' under the head of Terra Regis, or land belonging to the king, held by several persons during the reign of Edward the Confessor as vassals of the crown. Soon after the Norman invasion these lands were held by Baldwin de Brionis, who had married Albreda, the niece of William the Conqueror, and was created by him hereditary earl of Devon: they descended to his son, Richard de Brionis; and at his death, in 1100, without male issue, the manor and lordship were given by Henry I. to Richard Rivers, who was also created earl of Devon; and, in 1106, built Tiverton Castle for his residence. In 1293 the manor came into the possession of Hugh de Courtenay, second baron of Okehampton, created earl of Devon, in whose family it continued until 1466, when Henry Courtenay being attainted of treason, and beheaded on the 4th of March, his possessions were given to Sir Humphry Stafford, of Southwick, who was however also executed on the 17th of August following; and during the wars of the Roses and the succeeding convulsions the estates frequently changed owners. On the accession of Henry VII., in 1485, the house of Courtenay was again restored; and about the commencement of the sixteenth century William Courtenay married Catharine, seventh and youngest daughter of Edward IV., who survived him seventeen years, and lived during her widowhood in the castle of Tiverton: she was buried in the church adjoining. She was succeeded by her son and grandson, at whose death, in 1556, the lordship and manor were divided between the heirs of the four sisters of Edward, his great-grandfather; and soon after so subdivided, that when Risdon wrote, in 1630, there were then forty parts or shares, the principal of which came into possession of the Wests; and by the marriage of Dorothy, the heiress of that family, to Sir Thomas Carew, of Haccombe, in 1759, the family of Carew succeeded to the lordship and manor, which is now held by Sir Walter Palk Carew, Bart., together with the castle and adjoining estate, with a few

other farms in fee, and different undivided eighths of many other lands in the parish.

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| ants, whereas in 1591 the population had increased to 5000; and Dunsford states, on the authority of Risdon and Tiverton is supposed to be one of the largest boroughs Chapple, that it was the principal place in Devonshire in the kingdom, being about eleven miles in length, and for the making of kersies, which were known all over the nearly ten in breadth: the area is 20,000 acres, and it con- kingdom as Tiverton Kerzies,' and generally sent to the tains, according to the census of 1841, 1930 inhabited and London market. In 1612, 8000 persons were constantly 109 uninhabited houses; having a population of 10,041 employed in the manufacture of woollen cloth, and the inhabitants, 4648 males and 5393 females. The country annual returns of the trade exceeded 300,000l.; but an on the west and north sides is very hilly and well wooded. extensive fire shortly afterwards destroyed property to the The town is pleasantly situated on rising ground between amount of a quarter of a million, the operatives were disthe Exe and Loman, and is well watered by a brook called persed over the country, and the town never recovered the Town Leat, which rises about 5 miles north of the its former prosperity. After this the trade in kersies town, and was given, about 1260, by the then countess of gradually declined; but in 1690 the manufacture of mixed Devon, for the use of the inhabitants. On the west side worsted serges was established, and by 1715 there was of the river Exe is a large suburb called Westex, very again a population of 8700, with a trade returning 350,000l. densely populated, and principally inhabited by operatives. annually. In 1741 an epidemic fever scattered the poOne of the greatest attractions of the town is the trout-pulation, and as serges were supplanted in Holland by fishing in the two rivers. On the east side of the town is the Norwich stuffs, the manufacturers engaged in making the Tiverton branch of the Great Western Canal, by which common duroys, &c., for the Spanish and Italian markets. limestone, coal, culm, coke, &c. are imported. In 1756 there were 56 fulling-mills regularly employed, but the French revolution, and the long wars consequent upon it, put an end to the foreign trade, and the improvement of machinery in Yorkshire has taken away the woollen manufacture. In 1790 however a large building was erected in Westex for a cotton-mill, but finally converted into a manufactory for spinning wool, which was afterwards woven into coarse fabrics for the East India Company. This undertaking did not answer, and it was shut up in 1815. In 1816 Mr. Heathcoat of Loughborough, in consequence of the Luddite disturbances in that neighbourhood, removed to it with his beautiful machinery for making bobbin-net, for which he had obtained a patent in 1808, and many successive improvements having been made on it, the trade is still carried on to the great benefit of the town. It gives permanent employment to above 900 persons, besides temporary employment to several hundred girls and women.

The parish church, or at least part of it, was first built in 1073; consecrated by Leofricus, first bishop of Exeter; and enlarged and improved at various times by the families of Rivers and Courtenay previous to the fifteenth century. Between 1517 and 1529 John Greenway, an eminent merchant, rebuilt and enlarged the whole of the south aisle and south front, together with the elegant chapel bearing his name; and also erected the fine Gothic screen which separates the chancel from the body of the church. The south front and porch (of which an engraving appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine'), together with Greenway's Chapel, have lately been rebuilt, and the whole of the church new seated. It is a fine Gothic pile, 136 feet long and 82 feet wide; and the tower is 27 feet square at the base and 116 feet high. St. George's Chapel, which was finished in 1730, is of the Doric order, and situated in a large yard in the centre of the town. The tithes of the whole parish were granted, in 1146, by Baldwin de Rivers to the Cluniac monks at Exeter; but the parish was afterwards divided; for in 1257, as appears by the episcopal registers at Exeter, there were, as at present, four quarters, or ecclesiastical portions, viz., three rectories (Clare, Pitt, and Tidcombe), and an impropriation (Priors), which Henry VI. gave to the provost and fellows of King's College, Cambridge, who still retain the tithes, and appoint a stipendiary curate to perform a fourth part of the duty, although they deny their liability to do so. The tithes have lately been commuted: Clare at 5657.; Pitt, 850l.; Tidcombe, 7317. 10s.; Priors, 4007.; and certain small detached pieces of land, technically called All Fours,' 661.

The venerable remains of the old castle of the Riverses and Courtenays stand on an eminence near the Exe; some parts of the building are still in pretty good preservation, and might with a little repair last for several ages, but a considerable part of it was pulled down about a century since, and a modern house erected on its site. There is also a spacious market-place, erected in 1830, with a suite of rooms for assemblies, several dissenting chapels, a theatre, union workhouse, and bridewell, which is about to be pulled down, and a building on an improved plan erected in lieu of it.

Soon after the fire of 1612, James I. incorporated Tiverton by the title of mayor and burgesses, but the elective franchise then conferred was confined to the corporate body (25 in number), and continued in that state until the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, under which the constituency is about 500. The castle was bombarded and taken by General Fairfax in 1645, when Sir Gilbert Talbot was the governor.

Cosway the painter was a native of Tiverton, and painted an altar-piece of Peter delivered out of Prison,' which he presented to the parish, and it was placed in the church in 1777; the celebrated Bampfylde Moore Carew, the gipsy king, who lived a century ago, was a son of the rector of Bickleigh, an adjoining parish, and ran away from Blundell's school to join the gipsies. Although nearly related to the most respectable families of the western counties, nothing could induce him to give up his connection with this singular people, and his adventures, dictated by him to Mrs. Goadby of Sherborne, and which have been very frequently republished, contain an amusing account of his vagabondísm.

There are still many richly-endowed charities in Tiver ton. Blundell's free grammar-school was founded by Peter Blundell, merchant, in 1599: the income has increased, owing to the rise in the value of land, from under 100. to about 12007. per annum. There is now a surplus income of 500l. or 600l. a year. There are several fellowships, scholarships, and exhibitions connected with this school at Cambridge and Oxford. There is also a free English school, founded in 1609 by Robert Comyn, alias Chilcott, the nephew of Blundell. A blue-coat or charity school, where a number of poor children of both sexes are educated and clothed, has lately been erected in lieu of an old building, and it is supported by various bequests. There is also a national school, just built, which is supported by voluntary contributions; and an elegant school is now being erected in Westex, to be put under the direction of the British and Foreign School Society, Among the miscellaneous charities are Greenway's almshouses, founded in 1517, for the support of five poor men, with eight pence The principal market is on Tuesday, and is very abundweekly for each; but the revenues are now so much aug-antly supplied with live cattle, corn, meat, poultry, vegemented that there are eleven houses the inmates of which tables, and fruit; there is another smaller market on receive five shillings per week each, and ten of which the Saturdays, and two fairs. There is an anniversary meeting inmates have four shillings, and four additional almshouses of the trustees and other gentlemen educated at the are now being built. There is also an excellent charity, grammar-school about the last week in August, and on the founded by Walter Tyrrel in 1568, the proceeds of which two following days there are races over a very excellent are employed in repairing Exe bridge, and the overplus course, in the castle meadows adjoining the town. The distributed weekly in bread. There are many others of borough is divided into three wards: Westex ward, Castle less importance; and it has been said that if all the ward, and Loman ward, and the municipal body consists charitable donations had been properly looked after, there of six aldermen and eighteen councillors, out of whom the would not at present be any need of a poor-rate. mayor is chosen; the recorder is, as in other cases, nominated by the crown; he holds a session four times a year, and is the judge of the court of record for debts

The woollen trade of Tiverton was formerly very extensive. From 1560 to 1566 there were only 2500 inhabit