pagna and the neighbouring districts, remained upon the whole attached to the popes; and they even fought for Urban VI. against the Orsini lords of Vicovaro and Tagliacozzo, whom they defeated in 1381. Pope Pius II. built a castle at Tivoli, which remains.

Tivoli is now the head of a district of the comarca or province of Rome, which district, according to the last census, contained 55,825 inhabitants, and includes most of the old territory of Tibur. It is one of the few antient towns of Latium which stands on its antient site; whilst the modern representatives of Tusculum, Præneste, and Alba are no longer on the spot of those antient cities. The temple of Vesta, vulgarly called Della Sibilla,' with its Corinthian pillars, still occupies its commanding position; the temple of Hercules has been transformed into a cathedral; the Roman road, or Via Tiburtina, crosses the town; the Roman bridge called Ponte Celio, or Ponticelli, is still extant. There are considerable remains of the Villa of Mæcenas near the Cascatelle. Remains of that of Quintilius Varus are shown near a church called Quintiliolo. Another round temple, vulgarly styled Della Tosse,' or of the goddess Tussis, is outside of the Roman gate.

valley of the Caystrus from that of the Hermus. It is said by Pliny to have been previously called Timolus. (Nat. Hist., v. 30; compare Ovid, Met., vi. 15; xi. 86.) Tmolus was celebrated in antiquity for its wine (Strabo, xiv. 637), to which allusion is frequently made in the Baccha' of Euripides. It was also rich in minerals; and the Pactolus, which flows from it into the Hermus, is said to have washed down a great quantity of gold, whence Croesus and the Lydian kings were supposed to have obtained a great part of their wealth. In the time of Strabo however no gold was found in the river. (Herod., i. 93; v. 101; Strabo, xiii. 626.) Chishull, who visited Tmolus in 1699, describes the mountain as pleasant, and garnished with an infinite variety of plants, shrubs, and trees. Besides a fine prospect of the country, the traveller is amused with impending rocks, perpendicular precipices, and the murmurs of a brook, probably the Pactolus. On the top, which he gained in four hours, was a fruitful vale between two lofty ridges; with a vein of marble as clear and pellucid as alabaster. (Chandler, Travels in Asia Minor, c. 77.) Mr. Fellowes (Account of Discoveries in Lycia, p. 8) speaks of the mountain being covered with snow at the latter end of February; but Chishull found Tivoli is a bishop's see: it has a college, and a town the snow remaining on the summits at the latter end of library of about 6000 volumes, the gift of the Cavaliere April. Bischi, a native of the place; several manufactories of In the time of Strabo there was a watch-tower of white iron, leather, and paper; and 5300 inhabitants. The sur- stone on the top of Tmolus, which had been built by the rounding hills are covered with olive-trees. The streets Persians, and from which the whole of the surrounding of the town are narrow and steep. Near Tivoli is the ex-country could be seen, especially the plain of the Caystrus. tensive Villa d'Este, constructed about the middle of the (Strabo, xiii. 625.) Tacitus (Annal., ii. 47) speaks of a sixteenth century by the Cardinal Ippolito the younger, of town Tmolus, which was destroyed by an earthquake in Este, son of Alfonso I., duke of Ferrara, who was governor the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 17. This town seems to have of Tivoli under Pope Julius III., and afterwards embel- been situated either upon or near the mountain. Ernesti, lished by the Cardinal Luigi d'Este, brother of Alfonso II. in his note upon the above-mentioned passage of Tacitus, It has all the formal magnificence of the gardens and says that this town is also mentioned by Herodotus (i. 84), pleasure-grounds of that age; its trees cut in architectural but Herodotus is speaking of the mountain, not of the shapes, its mosaic-like parterres, its handsome fountains and town. The Mesotimolitæ, as the name indicates, inwater-works, constructed by Orazio Olivieri, a celebrated habited the central part of the mountain. (Pliny, Nat. hydraulist of Tivoli; its avenue of Italian pines, and its Hist., v. 30.) terraces, constitute a princely residence, suited to the character and style of its former owners. The mansion is adorned with frescoes by Zuccari and Muziano. The view from the terrace before the house is magnificent. Venturini has published views of this villa, Fontane del Giardino Estense coi loro prospetti.' The country about Tivoli and the valley of the Anio above it is one of the most pleasant, salubrious, and romantic districts near Rome. Vicovaro, the antient Varia, eight miles above Tivoli; the secluded monastery of Subiaco, which is twelve miles above Vicovaro, near where Nero had a villa; the sources of the Anio, near Trevi, above Subiaco; and the valley of Digentia, afford scope for interesting excursions. The vines of Tivoli are famed for a peculiar sort of grape, called 'pizzutello' and 'pergolese,' which, on account of its firmness and luscious taste, is much in request for the table. It was noticed as early as the time of Pliny the elder, who says (Hist. Nat., xiv. 4, Tauchnitz edit.) that it was then a newly discovered sort of grape, having the appearance of the olive, and was called by the Tiburtinesuva municipi.' The stone commonly called travertino,' of which many of the buildings of Rome are built, is dug near Tivoli.

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Many authors have written concerning the history and antiquities of Tivoli. Nicodemi wrote its history in Latin; Zappi wrote Annali di Tivoli;' Del Ré, Antichita Tiburtine;' Marzi, Storie Tiburtine;' Cabral and Del Ré, 'Nuove Ricerche delle Ville e dei più notabili Monumenti antichi della Città e del Territorio di Tivoli,' an excellent guide-book; De Sanctis, Dissertazioni sopra la Villa d'Orazio, sopra il Mausoleo de' Plauzj, e sopra Antino;' Ligorio, Pianta della Villa Tiburtina di Adriano disegnata e descritta,' published by F. Contini, fol., Rome, 1751; Agostino Capello, Saggio sulla Topografia Fisica di Tivoli,' in the 23rd vol. of the Giornale Arcadico,' 1824; Volpi, De Tiburtibus, seu Tiburtinis,' in his Vetus Latium and lastly, Viola, Storia di Tivoli della sua origine fino al Secolo XVII.' Rome, 1819.

TLASCALA. [MEXICAN STATES, vol. xv., p. 159.] TMOLUS (Tuλos), a chain of mountains which runs from east to west, nearly through the centre of Lydia, and parallel to the Messogis. It detaches itself from the Messogis near the borders of Phrygia and terminates on the coast opposite the island of Chios. It thus separates the

TOAD. [FROGS.] MM. Duméril and Bibron (Erpétologie) make the Bufoniform family of the Anurous Phanerogloss Batrachians (Anoures Phanéroglosses) consist of the following genera:

Dendrobates, Wagl. (Hylaplesia, part, Boie, Tschudi.)
Example, Dendrobates tinctorius (Cayenne).
Rhinoderma, Dum. and Bibr.

Example, Rhinoderma Darwinii (Chili).
Atelopus, Dum. and Bibr.

Example, Atelopus flavescens (Cayenne)
Bufo, Laur.

Example, Bufo vulgaris, the common toad. (Europe,
Japan.) [FROGS, vol. x., pp. 490, 491, 493, 495.] MM.
Duméril and Bibron record eighteen species of this genus.
Phryniscus, Wieg. (Chaunus,* part, Tschudi.)
Example, Phryniscus nigricans, Wieg. (Montevideo.)
Brachycephalus, Fitzing. (Ephippifer, Coct.)
Example, Brachycephalus ephippium, Fitzing. (Brazil,
Guyana.)
Hyladactylus, Tschud.

Example, Hyladactylus baleatus (Java).
Plectropus, Dum. and Bibr.

Example, Plectropus pictus (Manilla).

Engystoma, Fitzing. (Microps, Wagl.; Stenocephalus,
Tschud.)

Example, Engystoma orale (Surinam, Buenos Ayres).
Uperodon, Dum. and Bibr.

Example, Uperodon marmoratus (Montavalle, Indian Peninsula).

Breviceps, Merrem (Engystoma, part, Fitzing.; Systoma, Wagl., Tschud.).

Example, Breviceps gibbosus (South Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope).

Rhinophrynus, Dum. and Bibr.

Example, Rhinophrynus dorsalis (Mexico).

Geographical Distribution of the Family.-MM. Duméril and Bibron state (loc. cit.) that the number of species known to them (1841) was thirty-five, a much less number than that of the Raniform family, which includes fifty-one, and less still than the Hyliform or Tree-frog family, which comprises sixty-four.

Nevertheless, observe these excellent herpetologists, N.B. Præoccupied, at least Chauna is in ornithology. [PALAMEDEA, vol. xvii., p. 155.]

species of this family exist in all the five parts of the world, where they are distributed in a manner not less unequal than the Raniform and Hyliform species, and, always, with a greater proportion for America, whilst the smallest portion of them belong to Europe, which has not even a single species peculiar to itself, for the two there found, the Common Toad and the Green Toad (Bufo viridis, Laur.), also inhabit Africa and Asia, which produce moreover, the one Bufo pantherinus and Breviceps gibbosus, the other Plectropus pictus, Engystoma ornatum, Hyladactylus baleatus, Uperodon marmoratum, and Bufones cruentatus, scaber, biporcatus, isos, and asper.

Oceania, which, after America, is, they observe, best furnished with Hyliform species, and where two of the Raniform family are found, has not hitherto yielded more than a single Bufoniform species, viz. Phryniscus Australis.

America, besides six species of Bufo, viz. strumosus, melanotis, musicus, Americanus, margaritifer, d'Orbignyi, and Leschenaultii, furnishes Dendrobates tinctorius, obscurus, and pictus; Rhinoderma Darwinii; Atelopus fluvescens; Phryniscus nigricans; Brachycephalus ephippium; and Engystomata ovale, Carolinense, rugosum, and microps.

Mr. Darwin, speaking of the Fauna of the Galapagos Archipelago, says, but all harmless. Of toads and frogs there are none. Of snakes there are several species, was surprised at this, considering how well the temperate I and damp woods in the elevated parts appeared adapted to their habits. It recalled to my mind the singular statement made by Bory St. Vincent, namely, that none of this family are to be found on the volcanic islands in the great oceans. There certainly appears to be some foundation for this observation; which is the more remarkable, when compared with the case of lizards, which are generally among the earliest colonists of the smallest islet. It may be asked whether this is not owing to the different facilities of transport through salt-water, of the eggs of the latter, protected by a calcareous coat, and of the slimy spawn of the former." (Journal.)

FOSSIL TOADS.

Here may be noticed the fossil specimens from the Eningen beds-Bombinator Eningensis, Agass. (Pelophilus Agassizii, Tschudi), and Palæophrynos Gessneri, Tschudi. (See Classification der Batrachier, von J. J. Tschudi, pp. 84, 89, tab. 1, ff. 2, 3.)

TOALDO, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated Italian geographer and meteorologist, was born in 1719 at a small village near Vicenza. After having received the usual rudiments of education, he was sent to the University of Padua, in order to qualify himself for the priesthood by the study of literature and theology; and while there, a taste for natural philosophy, and particularly for astronomy, induced him to devote a considerable portion of his time to the

The fifth part is that termed by the French Océanie,' which includes the Indian Archipelago, the Society, Friendly, and other isles, Australia, and Van Diemen's Land.

+NB Bufo calamita, Laur., recorded as a third species by the Prince of Canino (Fauna Italica and Amphibia Europaea), is considered by MM. Du

méril and Bibron as identical with Bufo viridis,

15

TOB

pursuit of those branches of science; this pursuit he continued, during the intervals which his pastoral duties afforded, after he had quitted the university and become the curate of a village in the neighbourhood. graphy and astronomy in the same university, and he In 1762 he was appointed professor of physical geoimmediately availed himself of the influence which his appointment gave him to obtain the grant of a building which might be occupied as an observatory; in this he succeeded, and being allowed the use of an antient tower, he placed in it all the instruments which he could collect. tions, in continuation of those which had been made about In this building he made a series of astronomical observaforty years previously by Poleni; and the first thunder-rod plied to the same building. erected in the Venetian states was one which Toaldo ap

sequence of a fit of apoplexy, which was supposed to have He died suddenly at Padua, in December, 1798, in conbeen brought on by a domestic calamity.

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mathematics only as far as that branch of science is apThe Abbé Toaldo applied himself to the study of plicable to geography. In 1769 he published at Padua a treatise on plane and spherical trigonometry, with a colCompendio della Sfera e di Geographia.' In 1782 he lection of tables; and at Venice, in 1773, a tract entitled published his Saggio di Studi Veneti nell' Astronomia e finding the longitude of a place by an observed transit of nella Marina;' and two years afterwards, his method of the moon; in 1789 appeared his Trattato di Gnomonica,' and in 1791 a work entitled 'Schediasmata Astronomica.' resident at Venice, an account of the tides in the Adriatic, In 1776 he gave, in a letter to Mr. Strange, the British which he drew from the observations of Signior Temanza, appears that the tides in that sea are at their greatest an Italian architect and engineer. From this account it height in winter; that the height of the spring-tides amounts to between 3 and 4 feet, while the neap-tides scarcely exceed 3 inches. (Phil. Trans., vol. lxvii.)

The attention of Toaldo was strongly directed to meteorology at a time when this branch of natural philosophy was but little studied; and he is the first who took notice with the movement of the moon in her orbit. Having of the supposed connexion of atmospherical phenomena observed that those phenomena return in nearly the same order at the end of every eighteen years, he drew up tables exhibiting the state of the weather during three such periods; and an account of his system was given in a paper entitled Le Saros Météorologique,' &c., which is contained in the Journal de Rosier' for 1782.

In 1770 Toaldo published a tract entitled 'Saggio Meteorologico sulla vera Influenza degli Astri ;' and two years afterwards, a tract concerning the method of protecting buildings from the effects of lightning; he also published, in 1775, a work on the application of meteorology to agriculture.

Toaldo wrote a life of the Abbé Conti, which was prefixed to an edition of the works of that philosopher and poet, who had been his instructor.

TOBACCO, the common name of the plants belonging to the Monopetalous genus Nicotiana. Tobacco was the name used by the Caribbees for the pipe in which they smoked, but this word was transferred by the Spaniards to the herb itself. The genus Nicotiana contains about forty species, most of them yielding tobacco for smoking, and many of them cultivated in the gardens of Europe. The name Nicotiana was given these plants after Jean Nicot, of Nismes, in Languedoc, who was an agent of the king of France at Portugal, and there procured the seeds of the tobacco from a Dutchman who had pro1560. cured them in Florida. Nicot sent them to France in

undershrubs, and generally clothed with clammy hairs or
The species of Nicotiana are most of them herbs, rarely
down. The flowers are terminal, racemose or panicled,
and of a white, green, or purplish colour. The calyx is
5-cleft, permanent; corolla funnel- or salver-shaped, divi-
sions 5, plicate and spreading; stamens 5, as long as the
tube of the corolla; anthers dehiscing lengthwise; stigma
capitate; capsule 2-celled, 2-valved, valves bipartite;
seeds minute, numerous.

bacco, is an herbaceous plant, with acuminated, oblong,
lanceolate, sessile leaves, lower ones decurrent; throat of
N. Tabacum, Common Virginian or Sweet-scented To-

Every tobacco plantation has such buildings, proportioned | If it be found that, from defective packing, from the to the extent of the cultivation. The floors are most action of sea-water, or from any other cause, part of the commonly only the soil on which they stand; but it is much surface has become so injured as not to be worth preservbetter if they are boarded, because on the earth the plants ing, such part is removed, with large powerful cutting are apt to be soiled, which injures the quality of the instruments, by small quantities at a time. This requires tobacco. In some places the leaves are now stripped off considerable power, owing to the intense compression of the stems and strung on packthread to hang them up to the tobacco, especially upon the cylindrical sides of the dry. In others the whole plant is hung on pegs placed in mass, where the cutters act across the direction of the rows at regular distances, and fixed on laths which run stalks and leaves. The damaged tobacco thus removed is across the building. All that is required is to place as consumed in a furnace on the premises, which, with its many plants as possible without their being so near as to chimney, is jocularly termed the queen's tobacco-pipe." prevent the circulation of the air between them. When The remainder of the mass is accurately weighed, and then the plants are quite dry they are removed in moist or returned into the hogshead. foggy weather: for if the air is very dry the leaves would fall The manufacture of the tobacco-leaves into the numeto dust. They are laid in heaps on hurdles and covered over, rous varieties of tobacco for smoking in pipes-consisting of that they may sweat again, which they do but slowly. the leaf cut up into shreds or filaments, and usually divested The heaps are carefully examined from time to time to see of the stalk; into cigars, which are bundles of the tothat they do not heat too much; and, according to the sea-bacco-leaf rolled compactly together into a convenient son and the nature of the plants, whether more or less filled form for smoking; and into snuff, which consists partly of with sap, they remain so a week or a fortnight. This part of the stalks of the leaves, and partly of the leaves themselves, the process requires much attention and experience; for cut and ground into the state of powder-is usually conwhether they do not heat to the proper degree or too much, ducted by three distinct classes of individuals. The prein either case the quality is impaired. An experienced to- paration of tobacco, properly so called, claims the first bacco grower will ascertain the proper degree of heat better notice. with his hand, than the ablest chemist could do with his thermometer. If the leaves were not stripped off at first, which is not the most common practice, they are taken off now, when the proper fermentation is completed, and sorted; those which grow on the top of the stem, in the middle, and at the bottom, are laid separately, as being of different qualities. They are tied together in bundles of ten or twelve leaves, and again dried carefully, when they are ranged in casks horizontally, and pressed in, by means of a round board, by lever or screw, as soon as a certain quantity has been laid in; the pressure is equal to that of a weight of several tons. This is essential to the safe transportation of the tobacco, and it is thus that the great bulk of it arrives from the places where its cultivation is most extensive, as in America.

The finest tobacco however is made into rolls, which from their shape are called carrots. The leaves are placed together by large handfuls, and wound very tightly round by strips of fibrous wood or strong grass, at a time when the air is somewhat moist; they partially consolidate, and require only to be rasped to make the finest and most genuine snuff, or rappée, as it is called. The snuffs commonly sold however are manufactured and prepared in a much more complicated manner.

The refuse stems of the tobacco are sometimes burned; but it is best to let them rot in the ground, where they are converted into good manure for the next crop. From the high state of cultivation of the land, it is left very rich for any other crop after the tobacco; but as this is quite a garden cultivation, the tobacco recurs very soon on the same ground; the abundant manuring and deep trenching prevent any bad effects from this frequent recurrence.

Manufacture.-Tobacco is packed in hogsheads for shipment: it is done with the greatest care, each bundle being laid separately. They are ranged side by side, and the direction of the points of the leaves is reversed with every alternate row. When the cask is about one-quarter filled, the tobacco is compressed by a powerful lever-press, which reduces the thickness of the layer from about twelve inches to three; and the pressure is continued several hours, that the tobacco may become so consolidated as not to spring up again when it is removed. In this way the cask is filled, by successive stages, until it contains a mass of tobacco-leaves so dense and compact, that a hogshead fortyeight inches in length, and thirty or thirty-two inches in diameter, will contain one thousand pounds.

Upon the arrival of the tobacco in this country it is conveyed to bonding-warehouses. Those of the metropolis, which are of immense extent, are situated at the London Docks, where every cask is opened, to examine its contents, and to remove any tobacco which may have been injured in the passage. This arrangement is rendered necessary by the operation of the high import-duty, which renders it better for the owner to sacrifice a large quantity of tobacco which may have become impaired in value (though not rendered valueless) than to pay the duty upon it. For the purpose of examination, the head of the hogshead is knocked out, some of the staves are loosened, and the hogshead is taken completely off from the tobacco. P. C., No. 1554.

The first operation performed upon a hogshead of tobacco, after it has been removed to the manufactory and opened, is the digging out of the solid tobacco with iron instruments. The pieces thus detached are then sprinkled with water, which facilitates the separation of the small bundles from each other, and also of the leaves composing each bundle. If the tobacco be of the kind called handwork,' that is to say, with the stalks remaining attached to the leaves, it must now be stripped, unless indeed it be required for the production of a kind of tobacco called bird's-eye,' which contains a portion of stalk as well as leaf. The removal of the stalks is usually effected in England by women or boys, who fold the leaf along the middle, and, by means of a small instrument, applied with a dexterity acquired only by practice, separate the stalks from the leaves, and lay them aside in different heaps. To prepare them for being cut into shreds or filaments, the leaves are pressed together in large numbers in the form of a cake, during which operation they are occasionally moistened, not only to enable them to cake together the more readily, but also in order to improve the subsequent flavour of the tobacco. The details of the machinery employed for compressing and cutting the tobacco vary in different establishments. In that which is described in A Day at a Tobacco-Manufactory,' in the Penny Magazine,' the damp leaves are taken up out of a trough and laid in what is called a mortar-press,' several layers being piled upon each other. The whole is then subjected to pressure by means of an iron plate which descends into the press, and is forced down by a screw. The tobacco is next removed from the mortar-press' to the standing-press,' where it is compressed into one-third of its original thickness. The leaves remain several hours in this press, in order to destroy their elasticity. When removed from the press to the cutting-engine, the cake of leaves is as hard as a board; yet it retains a slight degree of clamminess or moisture from the previous sprinkling.

As manufacturing machinery generally has undergone, of late years, great changes and improvements, so it has been with the cutting-machinery of the tobacco-manufacturer. Originally it consisted simply of a long knife worked by hand. Hand-engines were then introduced, and such are still partially used, in which the knife is moved by a train of machinery, which also shifts the cake of tobacco between each cut, so as to make it ready for the next. This kind of cutting-engine is turned by a winch-handle, and the motion is regulated by a fly-wheel. Horses have been applied to a similar machine; and, lastly, steam-power has been brought to the aid of the manufacturer, leaving the attendance of men necessary only to place the cake in the engine, to attend to it while at work, and to remove the cut tobacco. Generally speaking, all of these machines act upon the same principle. The cake of leaves is laid upon an iron bed, which is susceptible of a slow progressive motion by means of a screw which passes beneath it, and is connected with a cog-wheel in such a manner that, while the machine is moving, the bed is constantly urged forward. Another part of the mechanism gives motion to the knife, which has a sharp VOL. XXV.-D

Snuff, which requires a higher degree of care in its manufacture than any other product of the tobacco-plant, is made either from stalks only, from leaves only, or from a mixture of the two. That known as Scotch snuff is made either wholly of stalks, or with a very small admix-in ture of leaves; high-dried snuffs owe their peculiar qualities chiefly to a degree of drying which imparts a Scorched flavour to them; and innumerable varieties are produced by the choice, mixture, and preparation of different tobaccos. Most of the snuff made near London is ground in mills whose machinery is impelled by the river Wandle, in and near to the small town of Mitcham in Surrey. In these mills two kinds of grinding-machine are employed, one consisting of two cylindrical stones, several feet in diameter, and one or more in thickness, set up on edge, side by side, upon a circular slab or bed. These stones have a two-fold motion imparted to them, resembling that of a carriage-wheel compelled to revolve in a small circle. The effect of this peculiar motion is a grinding action upon the bed where the snuff is laid, peculiarly adapted to the required purpose. Some kinds of snuff however are better ground by the other sort of machine, which consists of a kind of rolling pestle, set in motion by an ingenious train of wheels and set of jointed | period is added :—