Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family, namely, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, thus confessing that the Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really belongs. Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred principles which have dictated the present Act will be received with equal ardor and affection into this Holy Alliance. Done in triplicate and signed at Paris, the year of grace 1815, 14/26th September.

Perhaps the most noteworthy development from the Holy Alliance came from the attempt to extend its operation to the New World by the coercion of Spain's revolted colonies. George Canning (q.v.), on behalf of England, opposed this at the Congress of Verona (q.v.), and the threatened invasion of American autonomy, together with the proposed colonization of the Pacific coast of North America by Russia, the leader in the Alliance, brought from the Government of the United States the famous declaration of American policy known as the Monroe Doctrine (q.v.). For accounts of the Holy Alliance and its bearing upon contemporaneous his tory, consult the histories of the time and the biographies of leading persons connected with it. HOLY CITY. The common designation among different peoples and religious sects for the city regarded as the chief place of their religion. The term is most often understood as applying to Rome, but has been used also of Jerusalem, Allahabad, Benares, Mecca, Medina, Moscow, Kiev,

and Cuzco.

HOLY COAT. A relic preserved with the greatest reverence in the Cathedral of Treves (q.v.). It is alleged to be the seamless robe or upper garment of Jesus Christ (John xix. 23),

and to have been discovered in the fourth century by the Empress Helena, in her memorable visit to Palestine (see HELENA, SAINT) and by her deposited at Treves. The earliest definite documentary evidence, supported, however, by still earlier incidental testimony, dates from the eleventh century. The holy coat of Treves was solemnly exhibited to the public gaze in 1196, and again in 1512, when Luther wrote against it and Leo X. appointed it to be exhibited every seven years. The Reformation and wars prevented the regular observance of this religious festival; but it was celebrated in 1810, and was attended by a concourse of no fewer than 227.000 persons, and in 1844 and 1891 by still greater crowds, while miraculous cures were confidently asserted to be performed by the precious relic. The exhibition of the holy coat in 1844 led to the secession of the German Catholics (q.v.) from the Church of Rome. The seamless coat of Jesus

is also said to be preserved in the church at Argenteuil, near Versailles, but this claim is not considered well founded. The legend here is that it was given by Charlemagne to the monastery located there, his daughter Theodrada being abbess. Consult: Beissel, Geschichte des Heiligen Rockes (Treves, 1889); Clarke, Pilgrimage to the Holy Coat of Treves (London, 1892); Plater, The Holy Coat of Treves (ib., 1891).

HOLY COMMUNION. See LORD'S SUPPER. HOLY CROSS, COLLEGE OF THE. A Roman Catholic educational institution founded in 1843

and situated at Worcester, Mass. It is under the control of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. It maintains collegiate and preparatory departments, and had in 1903 385 students, of whom 175 were in the preparatory school. At the same time its library contained 24,000 volumes, the buildings and grounds were valued at $490,000, and the annual income was $20,000.

HOLY CROSS MOUNTAIN. A celebrated

peak of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, situState, 15 miles northwest of Leadville. ated in Eagle County, in the central part of the Its height is 14,006 feet. It derives its name from two snow-filled ravines, which cross each other at right angles, and present from a distance the appearance of a white cross.

HOLY DYING, RULE AND EXERCISES OF. A devotional manual, by Jeremy Taylor, published in 1651. It reached a twenty-first edition in 1710; has been frequently republished during the nineteenth century; and may be said, with its equally popular companion tractate, Rule and Exercises of Holy Living (1650), to offer a summary of the duties and devotions necessary to a Christian life.

soon

HOLY FAMILY. The name given in art to representations of the Virgin and the Infant Saviour and their attendants. The earliest such composition is that in the Catacomb of Saint Calixtus in Rome, with the Prophet Isaiah. The Virgin is represented sitting on a seat, which became a throne, the traditional attiThe Byzantude up to the Renaissance. tine School, as early as the sixth century, Child is invented the type in which the seated directly in the centre of the Virgin's lap, and is blessing, both figures gazing straight forward. Some of these early pictures were regarded as painted by Saint Luke and endowed with miraculous powers. ber in the churches of Rome (e.g. at San Sisto, Such are a numSanta Maria Maggiore, etc.), and Venice (e.g. that of Saint Mark, brought from Saint Sophia in 1204). Later, this school added attendant bore the emblems of the Passion, the sight of angels, who sometimes, as in the school of Candia, which affrights the Child. The arrangement in which the angels are throne-bearing and adoring figures, in rhythmic arrangement on either side tifully by Cimabue and Duccio in their famous of an immense throne, was developed very beaupictures at Florence and Siena. It was quite late in the Middle Ages when other figures were brought into the composition. These were, especially, Saint Anna, the mother of the Virgin (sometimes holding the Virgin in her lap), Saint Joseph, and as playmates to the Infant Christ, the infant John the Baptist (usually in goat-skin and bearing a cross), or Saint Catherine (with whom Christ is being sometimes mystically married). Even the early legendary history of the infancy of Christ has been drawn upon for such scenes as the Twelve Apostles playing with the Infant Christ as boys-a scene peculiar to German art. Of all subjects of Christian art that of the Madonna and Child, comparatively into overwhelming prominence, becoming the unknown before the thirteenth century, came favorite theme of the Italian painters of the Renaissance. Giovanni Bellini, Perugino, Filippo Lippi, Leonardo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto may be mentioned among the many who frequently treated it. One of its variants at

HOLY GHOST, or HOLY SPIRIT. In orthodox theology, the third person of the Trinity (q.v.), "proceeding from the Father and the Son," yet of one substance, majesty, and glory with the Father and the Son, very and eternal God. That the Holy Spirit is God is attested by passages of Scripture ascribing to Him the same names and attributes as to God (II. Cor. iii. 16, 17; II. Tim. iii. 16; II. Peter i. 21). He is distinct from the Father and the Son (Matt. xxviii. 19; II. Cor. xiii. 14; I. Peter i. 1-4), and this distinction is of a personal nature, similar to that between the Father and the Son, proved by many passages, such as John xv. 26: "But when the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, He shall testify of Me." The "procession" (q.v.) of the Spirit is the subject of one of the chief differences between the Eastern and the Western churches. The Holy Spirit is essentially a spirit of holiness, and His grand function is to apply to the hearts of men the benefits of Christ's death, to regenerate them, and then to sanctify them by the truth.

HOLY GHOST, ORDER OF THE (Fr., l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit). The name of an order of knighthood founded in 1578 by Henry III., King of France, because on Pentecost, 1573, he had been elected King of Poland, and on Pentecost, 1574, had succeeded to the French throne. The grand master of the order was always to be the King of France. The insignia were a green cross with eight points, on the obverse of which was a dove turned downward, on the reverse the representation of the archangel Michael; the chain, after Henry IV., bore the lilies of France and the monogram 'H.' There were one hundred knights, without counting foreigners. The order was definitely dissolved on February 10, 1831, by Louis Philippe.

HOLY GHOST FLOWER, or DOVE FLOWER. See HOLY SPIRIT PLANT.

HOLY GRAIL. See GRAIL, HOLY.

HOLY GRASS (Hierochloë borealis). A grass about a foot high, with a brownish glossy lax panicle. It is found in the North of Europe, and throughout North America. It has a sweet smell, like that of sweet vernal grass; and in Iceland, where it is plentiful, it is used for scenting apartments and clothes. In some countries it is strewn on the floors of the places of worship on festival days, whence its name. Its stems are used by North American Indians to weave into their baskets, mats, etc. It is of little value for forage, as stock seem to dislike it. This grass is known by many other names, as vanilla grass, seneca grass, sweet-scented grass, etc.

HOLY GROTTO. The traditional scene of the Annunciation, at Nazareth. Over the grotto stands a monastery, occupying the site of the

Santa Casa, the house in which Mary was born, and which was carried by a miracle to Loreto. The grotto is marble-lined and is lighted by nine silver lamps. It is 20 feet square and 10 feet deep.

HOLYHEAD, hõl'í-hěd. A seaport of Anglesey, North Wales, situated on the little island of Holyhead, 241⁄2 miles west-northwest of Bangor (Map: England, B 3). It is the terminus of the London and Northwestern Railway, and the port for the mail steamers to Dublin, 60 miles distant. It has a celebrated breakwater, 7860 feet long, which forms a harbor of refuge of 400 acres. It has three lighthouses. Coasting trade, ship-building, and rope-making are carried on. The town possesses assembly rooms and baths and a picturesque old embattled church. Interesting Roman and early English remains exist in the neighborhood. The United States is represented by a consular agent. Population, in 1891, 8745; in 1901, 10,072.

HOLYHEAD ISLAND. A small island of North Wales, west of the island of Anglesey, forming part of the county of that name (Map: Wales, B 3). Its area is about 6000 acres. Population, in 1891, 10,000; in 1901, 11,414.

A small

It

HOLY ISLAND, or LINDISFARNE. island belonging to Northumberland, England, in latitude 55° 40' N., longitude 1° 47′ W., 10 miles southeast of Berwick-on-Tweed and 3 miles north of the Farne Islands (Map: England, E 1). is about 4 miles long and 2 miles broad, and is connected with the mainland at low water by sands 3 miles in extent. On the south coast is the village of Holy Island, much resorted to by summer visitors. On the island are several ruins, the chief of which are the extensive and sombre-looking remains of the famous Abbey of Lindisfarne, originally a Saxon edifice, founded in 635 by Aidan, the disciple of Saint Columba. There is also an ancient castle, now fortified. Holy Island flourished under Saint Cuthbert, who died here in 687. In 793 the abbey was destroyed by the Danes. Consult Wilson, Lindisfarne Churches (1870). Population 700.

HOLY LANCE. The lance with which the Saviour's side was pierced, and according to one account, found at Jerusalem by Saint Helena, carried to Constantinople, and sent from there in 1492 to the Pope; now preserved in Saint Peter's. According to another account, it was lost until discovered by the Crusaders at Antioch, June 14, 1098. This discovery encouraged them so that they won a great victory. In 1104 this lance was presented to the Byzantine Emperor. The holy lance plays a prominent part in the legends of the Holy Grail (q.v.).

HOLY LAND. See PALESTINE.

HOLY LEAGUE. The name given to a number of political alliances in Europe. Of these the principal were the leagues formed (1) in 1511, by the Pope, Spain, and Venice against France; (2) in 1527, by the Pope, Francis I., and Henry VIII. against the Emperor Charles V.; (3) in 1538, by Charles V. and the Catholic princes of Germany against the Schmalkaldic League; (4) in 1571, by the Pope, Spain, and Venice against the Turks; (5) most important of all, the one formed in 1576 by the Guises, the Pope, Spain, and the Parlement of Paris against the Huguenots. In 1609 a Holy League (known as the Catholic League) was organized

by the Catholic States of Germany, with Bavaria at its head, in opposition to the Protestant Union.

HOLY MAID OF KENT. See BARTON, ELIZ

ABETH.

HOLY MOTHER OF THE RUSSIANS. An epithet originally given to Moscow, the former capital of Russia, by the masses of that nation, and still preserved among the peasantry. HOL/YOAKE, hōl'yōk, GEORGE JACOB (1817 —). An English writer, lecturer, and reformer, particularly identified with the 'coöperative movement.' He was born in Birmingham, England; was educated at the Mechanics' Institution there, taught mathematics for a time, and while still young became widely known as a radical in polities and religion, attracting attention in particular by his advocacy of the theories of Robert Owen (q.v.). He early became especially interested in the theory and practice of coöperation, was active in the movement for the organization of the so-called 'Rochdale Pioneers' in 1843, and subsequently was largely engaged as a lecturer and writer in the interests of coöperation. In 1842 he was imprisoned for six months for blasphemy, his being the last conviction on that charge in England. Soon afterwards he devised a moral system, known as 'secularism' (q.v.), which he advocated in public speeches and in the press. For a time he was president of the London Secular Society, the central organization of Secularism. He was instrumental in securing the repeal of the so-called 'tax upon knowledge' in 1854. He edited at various times the New Moral World, the Reasoner (from 1846 to 1866), and the Cause of the People, in which he contended vigorously for his views; and published numerous books, including: History of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857); The History of Coöperation in England (1875); Life of Joseph Rayner Stephens, Preacher and Political Orator (1881); Self Helps One Hundred Years Ago (1890); The Coöperative Movement of To-Day (1891); Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life (1892), an interesting though somewhat rambling autobiography; Nature and Origin of Secularism, Showing that Where Free Thought Commonly Ends Secularism Begins (1896); and Jubilee History of the Leeds Cooperative Society (1897).

HOLYOKE, hōl'yok. A city in Hampden County, Mass., 8 miles north of Springfield; on the Connecticut River, and on the Boston and Maine and the New York, New Haven and Hartford

railroads (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). It was originally a part of West Springfield, and was incorporated as the Third Parish in 1786, though it was commonly called Ireland Parish,

from the fact that several Irish families were the first settlers. In 1850 Holyoke was set off from West Springfield and incorporated as a separate town; and in 1873 it was chartered as a city. Its importance as a manufacturing centre dates from 1847, when the Hadley Falls Company began to develop the great natural water

The river here falls 60 feet and is power. crossed by a dam 1000 feet long, affording the most valuable power in New England. For many years it was noted for its paper-mills, but it now has also extensive manufactures of cottons, woolens, thread, silk, alpaca, bicycles, automobiles, belting, bricks, screws, wires, machinery, envelopes, and school supplies. It is an impor

tant centre for hydraulic engineering, for testing water-wheels, etc. There are a public library, a college of music, city hospital, and House of Providence Hospital. The Holyoke Scientific Society has done valuable work in American archæology, and has fine collections of Indian antiquities. In the vicinity are many points of scenic interest, notably Mount Tom (1215 feet), ascended by an electric railway from Holyoke, and Mount Holyoke (955 feet). Holyoke is governed under a revised charter of 1896, by a Mayor, elected annually, and a city council, two-thirds of whose members are elected at large for two years, the remainder by wards for one year. The subordinate offices are filled as follows: appointed by the Mayor-board of public works, fire commissioners, board of health, city marshal and assistants, city solicitor, and inspector of milk; appointed by the Mayor with the consent of the council-sealer of weights and measures and inspectors of animals and provisions; elected by the council-water commissioners, city physician, poor overseers, city auditor, and city messengers; by the people-all others. The annual income and expenditures of the city amount to about $1,780,000 and $1,745,000 respectively, the main items of expense being $50,000 for the police department, including amounts for police courts, jails, etc.; $70,000 for the fire department, and $175,000 for schools. The city owns and operates its water-works, and has voted to acquire the gas and electric-light plants. Population, in 1890, 35,637; in 1900, 45,712. See MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE.

HOLYOKE, MOUNT. A steep ridge of greenstone 5 miles southeast of Northampton, Mass., rising 955 feet above sea-level (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). A carriage road winds up-` ward to the summit, and a mountain railway carries passengers up a precipitous incline to a hotel built on the summit in 1821. The view here obtained of the Connecticut River and valley has long been famous as one of the finest in New England.

HOLY PHIAL, ORDER OF (Fr. Sainte Ampoule). The name of an order of knighthood It was comwhich formerly existed in France. posed of four persons, usually the first in point. of rank, family, and fortune in the Province of Champagne, who were styled Barons de la Sainte Ampoule. At the coronation of the French kings, they were delivered to the dean, priors, and chapholy phial in which the coronation oil was kept. ter of Rheims, as hostages for the return of the The phial, according to legend, was brought from heaven by the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove and put into the hands of Saint Remigiris at the coronation of Clovis (q.v.). The holy phial preserved at Rheims was broken by Ruhl, a member of the Convention, in 1793. The badge of the order was a cross of gold enameled white, cantoned with four fleurs-de-lis, and on the cross a dove descending with a phial in its beak, and a right hand receiving it.

overthrown by the barbarians in 476. When Charles the Great was crowned Emperor by Leo III. he thought of himself as the successor of Augustus, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius, and styled himself Augustus. This theory prevailed throughout the Middle Ages. Louis the Pious, Lothaire I., Louis IL, Charles the Bald, and Charles the Fat were crowned as Roman emperors. After the deposition of the latter (887), which was followed by the disruption of the great Frankish Empire, the Imperial title was still held by a few princes, as Arnulf, King of Germany, and Berenger I., King of Italy. In 962 Otho the Great, after wresting the royal crown of Italy from a descendant of Charles the Great, had himself crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII., and inaugurated the Roman Empire of the German nation. From that time the King of Germany was usually Emperor. The Empire consisted of Italy and the lands whose rulers recognized the overlordship of the German monarch; but theoretically the Emperor

was the ruler of all Christians in Western Eu

rope, and some emperors, as, for example, Henry VI., dreamed even of a world-wide empire. At different periods the rulers of Hungary, Poland, Denmark, Jerusalem, and Cyprus were to a greater or less extent vassals of the Roman Emperor. Until the reign of Frederick Barbarossa the name had been merely Roman Empire;' Frederick added the designation 'Holy,' either to vindicate its sacred character against the exclusive pretensions of the Church, or else to describe its chief function as the protection of that Church. By the close of the thirteenth century the authority of the German emperors in Italy was reduced to a mere shadow. At the close of the fifteenth century the Swiss cut loose completely from the Empire. In the Netherlands the Imperial authority had come to an end long before their connection with the Empire was declared to be severed in an article of the Peace of Westphalia (1648).

The early German kings were elected by the chief men of the nation with the assent of the other freemen. Gradually the chief nobles secured almost entire control of the elections, but there was no fixed mode of procedure. At the election of Lothair in 1125, for example, a committee consisting of ten from each duchy was chosen to select an Emperor. In the thirteenth century-by a process of evolution, which it is not possible to trace now-the number of electors had been fixed at seven, but there was a dispute as to who were included in the seven. This was settled in 1356 by the Golden Bull of Charles IV., which determined that the electoral college should be composed of the Archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. The Golden Bull also declared that the electoral votes were attached to the office, not to the persons, and descended in the case of the lay principalities by right of primogeniture. This continued to be the constitution of the electoral college until 1623, when Ferdinand II. arbitrarily transferred the vote belonging to the Count Palatine to Maximilian of Bavaria. At the Peace of Westphalia (1648) an eighth electorate was created for the Palatinate. In 1692 the ninth electorate, that of Hanover, was instituted. The Imperial elections were held at Frankfort-on-the-Main and the cor

onation city was Aix-la-Chapelle. The Emperor at some time during his reign went to Rome to receive the Imperial crown at the hands of the Pope. The last ceremony of this kind took place in 1530, when Charles V. was crowned at Bologna by Pope Clement VII. The successor-elect to the Emperor of the Romans was styled King of the Romans.

During the so-called Interregnum following on the death of the last Hohenstaufen Emperor there was a double election (1257), both Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso X. of Castile being made Emperor, one receiving four votes and the other three. Their election may be taken to illustrate the theory held by some at the time, that a man of any nationality might be chosen to the Empire; but their total failure to obtain anything but the mere Imperial title proved that as a matter of fact the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire could be held only by a Germanic prince. After 1438 all the emperors but two belonged to the House of Hapsburg.

Charles the Great and his immediate successors followed the old German custom of calling together, at frequent intervals, the nobles and freemen for consultation about the public welfare. As feudalism developed these assemblies ceased, and the Emperor called together only such of his vassals as he chose. Their meetings were called Imperial Diets (Reichstage). In the thirteenth century the cities became very influential, and consequently their representatives were summoned to the Diets. As the power of the emperors declined, the Diets took a more prominent part in the administration of the Empire. Their functions were judicial as well as administrative. In the fourteenth century it came to be fixed that the Diet consisted of the three classes: electors, princes, and representatives of the cities. The lesser nobility had no voice in the Diet. But the power of the Diet was slight, because it was concerned only with Imperial matters, and the Empire had ceased to be of real importance as a factor in European politics. This was clearly shown in 1496, when Maximilian I. attempted to unite the Imperial estates against the French invasion of Italy. The Diet which he summoned did nothing to check the French, but with the Emperor's consent created the Imperial Chamber (q.v.) a supreme tribunal for the preservation of peace within the Empire. It consisted of a president and sixteen members, who could not be removed from office. It held its sessions at Frankfort, Speyer, and other cities until 1698, when it was established permanently at Wetzlar. Gradually the Imperial Chamber became an important factor in the maintenance of peace within the Empire. The Emperor was jealous of it, as he had no control over it. Consequently he attempted to transfer some of its authority to the Aulic Council (q.v.), a somewhat similar body for Austria, which was under his control. During the first half of the sixteenth century the Aulic Council interfered in the affairs of Italy, the Netherlands, and other portions of the Empire. After that time, however, it was again restricted to Austrian interests alone.

The Empire came to an end in 1806, when Francis II. resigned the Imperial crown after having assumed (1804) the title of Emperor of Austria. After the time of the Hohenstaufen, whose dynasty came to an end in 1254, the Em

pire rapidly sank in importance, and owed any real authority which it possessed to the strength of the ruler who was Emperor. Still the possession of the title gave some additional prestige. By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the bonds which held the Empire together were greatly loosened, the right being accorded to the individual States to enter into foreign alliances. In the eighteenth century Voltaire said of the Holy Roman Empire that it was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. During its earlier existence, however, it was a very important factor in the history of Europe. Consult: Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire (London, 1864); Fisher, The Medieval Empire (2 vols., London, 1898). See GERMANY; ITALY, and the articles on the individual emperors, with the books cited.

HOLYROOD (holi-rood) PALACE. The former residence of the Scottish Kings in Edinburgh. It was rebuilt between 1671 and 1679 by King Charles II. of England from the designs of Sir William Bruce of Kinross, after the almost total destruction by fire in 1560 of the prior palace built by James IV. It occupies the site of the famous Augustinian Abbey of the Holy Rood erected by King David I. in 1128, at the place where, according to a fabulous story, he was miraculously saved from the attack of a hunted stag by the interposition of the lost holy cross or rood which fell from the stag's antlers into the King's hands, and at the sight of which the animal turned and fled. The black rood of Scotland, as it was called, was brought to Scotland by Saint Margaret about the year 1070 and became one of the kingdom's heirlooms. It is known to have fallen into the hands of the English at the battle of Neville's Cross in 1346, but its disappearance, in course of time, gave currency to the above fable. The sole remains of the abbey are the ruins of the church which, anciently, was a safe refuge for criminals, and remained so for debtors until the abolition of imprisonment for debt in 1880. Holyrood is interesting as the scene of many historical events, including the term of Queen Mary's residence and of Rizzio's murder in 1566. It is the occasional residence of the British sovereigns, and since the death of Queen Victoria has undergone thorough renovation. Consult: Historical Description of the Monastery and Chapel Royal of Holyrood House (Edinburgh, 1819); Wilson, Memorials of Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1848).

HOLY SEPULCHRE. The place where Jesus was entombed. According to the New Testament data, the sites of the crucifixion and burial of Jesus were not far apart (John xix. 41), outside Jerusalem (Heb. xiii. 12), and near a road (Mark xv. 29; Matt. xxvii. 39). The tomb itself was in a garden (John xix. 41), and apparently on a slope. The place of crucifixion was called Golgotha (Mark xv. 22; Matt. xxvii. 33; John xix. 17), an Aramaic word meaning skull. Calvary is but the anglicized form of the Latin calvaria, skull. There is no evidence for supposing that the locality was sufficiently elevated to be called a hill or mount. The Gospels imply that the site was well known when they were written, but the references are not full enough to make a modern identification easy or certain.

The traditional site of both Golgotha and the tomb of Jesus is that now covered by the Church VOL. IX.-33.

of the Holy Sepulchre, 400 to 500 yards west of the northern part of the Haram esh-Sherif, or temple area, and well within the modern city of Jerusalem. Here Constantine the Great built a beautiful church on the spot then supposed to be the place of the Ascension. This identification was not seriously disputed until Jonas Korte, in 1741, claimed that, being within the city walls, it could not be correct. Korte supposed that the modern north wall was in existence at the time of the crucifixion, but in fact it was built later. In 1841 Edward Robinson, in his Biblical Researches, disputed the correctness of the traditional site, on the supposition that the second wall of Josephus-i.e. the north wall in Christ's day-passed to the north of it, and in that case it must have been within the city. Since Robinson, this has been felt to be the chief and fatal obstacle to the view that the modern church actually covers the spot where Jesus was buried. But the excavations and measurements of Conrad Schick (1888 and later) have made it all but certain that the wall in Christ's day lay south and east of the disputed site, which therefore was outside the city, and may well have been the scene of the crucifixion and burial. Of other proposed sites, two, both outside the modern city, near the Damascus Gate, have received strong support. The question is still unsettled, but the drift of competent opinion is toward acceptance of the traditional view.

A few years after the crucifixion, the northern area of Jerusalem was inclosed by a third wall, as it was becoming thickly settled. There is no reason to suppose that the early Christians forgot where the crucifixion and burial had occurred, though there is no probability that they venerated the place as holy. In the Jewish war with Rome (66-70), this part of the city was occupied by the Roman army preparatory to the assault on the second wall. From its capture by Titus (70) to the rebellion of Bar-Cochba (13235), the city was practically in ruins, though not entirely desolate. After suppressing this rebellion Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as a heathen city, calling it Elia Capitolina, and absolutely forbidding Jews to enter it. On the site of the temple a shrine to Jupiter was built, and on that of the supposed tomb of Jesus a temple to Venus was erected (by Hadrian or one of the later emperors). Incidentally this may be evidence that even then Christian tradition pointed out that spot as worthy of veneration. In the third century the holy places of the city and vicinity began to attract pilgrims from various parts of the Empire, though there is no evidence that any visited this particular spot. In the fourth century the pilgrimages became more popular, and when through Constantine I. the Empire became nominally Christian, it was but natural that the Emperor, urged on, doubtless, by his mother, determined to rescue the holy sepulchre from oblivion and disgrace. What guided Constantine in selecting this spot was, without doubt, the tradition already current. On removing the accumulated rubbish, the workmen came upon a rock tomb. So astonishing was this coincidence that it was counted as simply miraculous that the precious grave, so long hidden away, should at last have come to light. Legends soon began to multiply-e.g. that Helena, Constantine's mother, miraculously discovered the true cross near by, of which Eusebius, the contemporary