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glass. Any two of these form an opaque combination-that is to say, the first glass stops all the rays which could pass the second and the second stops all that pass the first. But a green and a blue glass do not form an opaque combination, but pass the green rays. If we place the red, the green, and the violet glasses in a row close to each other, with the green in the centre, place a piece of yellow glass so as to overlap the junction between the red and green glasses, and a piece of blue glass to overlap the junction between the green and violet glasses, and arrange the combination so that white light can pass through it, it will be seen that the yellow glass passes the red and green rays, and the blue glass passes the green and violet rays; and that the only effect of the yellow and blue glasses is to deepen the colours when the light passes through them. Darrock, Falkirk, Sept. 23

JOHN AITKEN

Anthropology and M. Comte PERHAPS you will allow me to state that your report of my paper "On the Anthropology of Auguste Comte," read before the British Association at Edinburgh, is wrong in two essential particulars. First, I did not attempt to expound the views of M. Comte according to the principles laid down by Mr. Darwin." Comte's views on man and his relation to the animal kingdom were published upwards of twenty years ago; Mr. Darwin's recently. Second, I did not "maintain that Auguste Comte's worship of humanity would be the great doctrine of the future." I may, and do believe this, but I made no reference to it whatever in the paper which you have so correctly mis-reported. The Positive religion was not the subject of discussion, and I limited myself to what my paper implied. J. KAINES

3, Osborne Road, Stroud Green Lane, N., Sept. 22

A Plane's - - ?

IT is perhaps answering somewhat at cross purposes, but would not the word aspect meet Mr. Wilson's requirements? In reference to those important planes of every-day life, garden walls or house fronts, its use is well established; and there would be no violence to either custom or language in applying it to geometry. J. K. LAUGHTON [Another correspondent suggests the term "slope."—ED.}

Meteorological Phenomenon AMONGST Some old memoranda I find the following, which I copy verbatim -JOSEPH JOHN MURPHY

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim, Sept. 18 "Monkstown, near Dublin, about 3.10 P.M. 25th of July, 1858, saw, about opposite the sun, an appearance like the rainbow, but horizontal, and extending along a few degrees of the horizon. The red was above the seahorizon, and the green below. I could not make out beyond the green, but this might be because the blue was blended with the colour of the sea. As I did not see it commence, I cannot

It seems probable, from a discussion of former observations, that the polarisation of the sky is altogether changed during totality, and that instead of being radial to the sun as at other times, its plane is perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the horizon. This appears at all events to be the case over a very large area about the eclipsed sun.

In passing along a parellel to the horizon through the sun's centre, we should expect to find, at some little distance from the limb, the pure atmospheric polarisation unaffected by any component due to the corona.

At such a point an observer using a Savart might therefore expect to find the bands disappear at an angle of 45° to the horizon. Having carefully turned out all trace of the bands upon the centre of his field, let him now pass onward towards the sun's limb (directing his attention all the time to the centre of his field only), when he there perceives the first trace of bands. He will know that the plane of polarisation has changed. If, on going back. wards, the bands disappear again, while in passing onwards they continue to increase, he will know that that change is due to a component introduced by the corona; and he will be able to estimate the distance from the moon's limb at which such a component first became visible.

I feel disposed to think that by this method he will be able to trace the corona further than he could by the unaided eye; for it will be somewhat equivalent to making the corona shine upon a perfectly black back ground of sky; and much more than equivalent to accomplishing this with a Nicol only, for the Savart will detect less than one-eighth of the polarisation detectable by the Nicol.

The visible outer border of the corona is where our eye first distinguishes a difference between

The light of the sky and

The light of the sky + the light of the corona, while by this method the visible outer edge of the corona will be where we first distinguish a difference between an area of no polarisation and polarisation due to the corona.

In using a Savart with a large field, the central portion of the field might well be marked by fixing in the common focus of the telescope a plate of glass with a small circle etched upon it corresponding say to 8' or 10' of diameter in the field of view. A. C. RANYARD

A Rare Moth

A FINE specimen of the rare moth Deiopeia pulchella (crimson speckled footman) was captured by R. Beck on the Moors near Scarborough on the 11th inst. Could any of the readers of NATURE inform me whether it has ever been taken so far north

before? W. E. WALLER Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough, Sept. 22

Meteorology in America

THE writer of the article on this subject may be interested in hearing that a meteorograph, similar in some respects to that invented by Prof. Hough, was sent to the International Exhibition just closed in London. It was invented and constructed in Sweden, and one similar is said to have been performing satis

say how long it lasted. It faded gradually but rapidly, without
any other change in the sky that I saw. The day was alternate
sunshine and heavy showers; the sun was shining at the time.
"This note has been made within half an hour after its disap-factorily for nearly three years. In the Swedish, as in the
pearance.'

Lunar Rainbow

A VERY perfect lunar rainbow was seen here last night. I noticed it first at 9.42. At that time the northern portion of it only was visible, but its intensity steadily increased, and by 9.45 the arch was complete. Both at the northern and southern extremities there was a peculiar glare, extending upwards about 20°, the apex of the arch being remarkably clear and well-defined. The rainbow faded away as rapidly as it had been developed, and at about 9.50 had entirely disappeared. At the time of the occurrence the western portion of the heavens was very clear, and the moon about 8° above the horizon. Temperature cold, with a biting wind from W. S. W.

Hinderton, Neston, Cheshire, Sept. 23

The Corona

R. B.

MAY I suggest a method of observation which would possibly be a more delicate test than that which our own sight affords for ascertaining the outer limits of the corona?

American instrument, the height of the mercury in the barometer, and the wet and dry thermometers, is felt by steel wires descending the tubes; but in the Swedish instrument the levers to which these wires are attached are acted on by very fine screws, the revolutions of which, translated by a series of wheels into the language of barometers and thermometers, are printed every quarter of an hour on an endless roll of paper. The whole apparatus is set in motion by a galvanic battery, which even winds up the clock which regulates its own action. The barometer is tapped before it is registered, but there is no correction for temperature. The price is 350.

The barometer invented by Prof. Wild seems to bear some resemblance to the barograph invented by Mr. King, and now used at the Liverpool Observatory. W. R.

Ruined Cities of Central America In the summary of the proceedings of the late meeting of the British Association, in the issue of NATURE for August 31, is an abstract of a paper by Captain L. Brine, R.N., On the Ruined Cities of Central America. The gallant captain is wrong in stating that the existence of these ruined cities was unknown

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until within a comparatively recent period. All the early chronicles abound in allusions to them-Remesal. Vasquez, Cogolludo, Villagutierre, Juarrez, and others. Uxmal and Chichen Itza, which Captain Brine speaks of as 'discoveries," were undoubtedly occupied places at the time Grijalva touched the shores of Yucatan. Copan, although then a ruin, was visited and minutely described by Dr. Palacios as long ago as 1576. Captain Brine would lead us to infer that these remains have been "discovered" since the expedition of Del Rio to Palenque in 1787.

That these Ruined Cities were built by the progenitors of the various families of the Tzeudal or Maya stock found in Central America at the time of the discovery, and who are still there, and that many of them were then occupied and flourishing does, not admit of doubt-is capable of demonstration. Big-eyed Wonder should be eliminated from modern speculaE. GEO. SQUIER

tion !

New York, Sept. 14

The Dinnington Boulder

I HAVE been favoured with a letter from a geologist residing at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, who kindly informs me that he has inspected the "fossiliferous boulder," and pronounces it to be a block of carboniferous limestone.

This gentleman, from his knowledge of the district, says, that this limestone (underlying the coal measures) crops out about seven or eight miles to the west or north west of Dinnington, from whence probably it came. The question asked of its direction of travel is therefore satisfactorily answered.

Barbourne, Worcester, Sept. 21

Mechanical Drawing

J. BROUGH Pow

IN the opening address of the President of the Mechanical Section of the British Association, descriptive geometry and geometrical projection are both spoken of as subjects of little value to the mechanical draughtsman.

Now, being interested in the matter, I would like to ask the nature of that special kind of mechanical drawing of which the President spoke, and which leads to mensuration and geometry. I suppose from the address, descriptive geometry and geometrical projection will be dispensed with, seeing, as he says, that it is no loss to the mechanical draughtsman to be ignorant of the latter. As an illustration of that real mechanical drawing which he advocates, would Prof. Jenkin be kind enough to show the method he would adopt in the construction of a drawing which would show the lines of intersection of the surfaces of a cone and sphere whose axes are not in the same plane?

I can assure Prof. Jenkin that a word of advice from him will always be a great boon to the hardworking student.

Fall River, Mass., Sept. 18

Ice-Fleas

DRAUGHTSMAN

I SHOULD have thought that the "ice-fleas" described by Prof. Frankland had been almost as familiar to Alpine travellers as their more offensive namesakes of the châlets. They are described by De Saussure (Voyages, § 2249), by Mr. Morell, "Scientific Guide to Switzerland," p. 275; by myself "Alpine Regions," p. 207, where references are given, chiefly to a paper by M. Nicolet in "Neue Denkschriften der Allg. Schweiz. Gesellsch." vol. v. (1841); and by other writers on the Alps. T. G. BONNEY

St. John's College, Cambridge

Thermometer Observation

ONE very hot day last summer I exposed to the sun, in the same position, three thermometers; No. was a new one mounted on box wood, No. 2 was similar, but very dirty from exposure to the weather; No. 3 is what is known as a bath thermometer, with a metal scale. In the shade they all agree to about 1°, but in the sun No. 2 rose about 8° above No 1, and No. 3 about the same above No. 2. Here we have a discrepancy of about 16°, caused no doubt by the different heat absorbing and radiating powers of the substances on which the thermometers were mounted. I think this may somewhat account for the various readings we see announced by different observers. D. J. STUART

THE USE AND ABUSE OF TESTS

THE gradually increasing recognition of the claims of Science by the Government is cause for unmingled satisfaction to every one who is interested in the material and moral progress of the country. And now that the Government has set its hand to the work, it seems disposed to let no timorous counsels or half-measures prevail. The readiness with which the demands of astronomers have been met last year and this, the really admirable practical instruction recently given to science teachers at South Kensington, are evidence of the earnestness of the intentions of those in authority.

In the present attitude of the Government towards Science, however, everything is not yet as it should be. Much of the practical value of this earnestness consists in the manner in which details are carried out, and there is one department of the administration in which a spirit of mischief appears to delight in neutralising all efforts at improvement. The recent movement to compel all candidates for employment under Government to submit themselves to an educational test is in the main a good one; but it may be carried to an excessive, even to a ludicrous, extent. Tests are in themselves valueless, unless they are so contrived as to test the possession by the candidate of those qualifications which will best fit him for the office he aspires to fill.

There are at the present time vacancies in one of our Government scientific establishments for two junior assistants, and the principal of the establishment was desirous of appointing two young men who possessed the needful qualifications of neat and orderly habits, punctuality, and obliging demeanour, and a love of Science for its own sake. The establishment in question has, however, the misfortune to be under the control of the Board of Works; and when the authorities of this department heard of the vacancies, they insisted, notwithstanding the remonstrances of those most interested, in announcing be that the posts will, in all probability, be given to those them for public competition. The consequence will who display the best acquaintance with English History or French, but who have not proved themselves possessed of a single qualification for these particular posts. This Procrustean system of measuring all men by the same standard will not answer. The inevitable result will be to fill all the square holes with round men, and all the round holes with square men. As reasonably might we require all the clerks in the Foreign Office to be acquainted with the properties of the chemical elements, or every assistant in the library of the British Museum to be able to name the bones in the human skeleton; for these are as essential to the liberal education which every gentleman ought to possess, as a knowledge of English History or French. The system pursued in the British Museum, which is fortunately under the control of another department of the administration, would satisfy all reasonable requirements that the principals of all establishments should have the right to nominate candidates to vacancies, subject to a qualification-test of their general acquirements. It is but fair that in departments where the efficiency of the subordinate officials depends so much on their willingness to co-operate heartily with their superiors, and on the possession of qualities which no examination can possibly test, the principals should have some voice in the appointment of those who may probably succeed to the offices they themselves occupy. An opportunity is thus also given for the encouragement of young scientific aspirants, who may be known as earnest and careful workers, but who would otherwise stand little chance of Government employ.

:

We make these strictures in no carping spirit, but simply with a desire that the good work now commenced may not be marred by errors of administration. The only object of the system of competitive examinations, and of compelling all candidates for Government posts first to submit

themselves to a qualification test, is in order that these offices may not be the refuge for genteel incompetence, but may be bestowed on the most fitting aspirant. We fear the above facts will show that the present system is not calculated in all cases to secure this end.

MR.

THE GIBRALTAR CURRENT

R. CROLL having stated (NATURE, August 17) that, taking my own data, and having “in regard to the Gibraltar current and Dr. C.'s general oceanic circulation, determined the absolute amount of those effects on which his circulation depends," he has satisfied himself by mathematical investigation "that the work of the resistances greatly exceeds the work of gravity, and that consequently there can be no such circulation as that for which Dr. C. contends,"-I think it well to point out that the question of the existence of such a circulation is not to be disposed of by the calculations of even such an expert computer as Mr. Croll, but must be decided by the collection and comparison of facts ascertained by observation and experiment.

Now, as it happens that an opportunity has been recently afforded me by the Hydrographer to the Admiralty of carrying out, in conjunction with Captain Nares, of H.M.S. Shearwater, a series of further researches on the Gibraltar current, which place beyond all doubt the outflow of dense Mediterranean water into the Atlantic, over the "ridge" or "marine watershed" between Capes Trafalgar and Spartel, and beneath the surface-inflow of Atlantic water, I would submit (1) whether there must not be some fundamental fallacy in Mr. Croll's computations in regard to the Gibraltar current, and (2) whether this fallacy should not destroy all confidence in the infallibility with which Mr. Croll credits himself in regard to the general occanic circulation.

No one can be more ready than myself to admit that this last doctrine is at present only a hypothesis, resting on a very narrow basis of fact. But as this hypothesis has been accepted as probable by such great masters in physical science as Sir John Herschel and Sir William Thomson, and as the means of putting it to the test will be supplied by the Scientific Circumnavigation Expedition, which (I have every reason to expect) will be fitted out by Her Majesty's Government next year, I would venture to suggest whether prudence does not dictate to the opponents of that doctrine, that they should either drop further discussion of it for the present, or that at any rate they should refrain from attempting to demonstrate its impossibility.

The number of NATURE which contained Mr. Croll's letter, having also given an account of the discussion which took place in the Physical Section of the British Association on a communication I made to it with reference to this subject, I may nention that my especial purpose in that communication was to obtain the judgment of the able physicists there assembled, as to a fundamental question at issue between my friend, Prof. Wyville Thomson, and myself, namely, the cause of that flow of polar water over the deepest parts of the ocean bottom, bringing down its temperature even under the equator to 335, as to the fact of which we are in entire agreement. By my excellent colleague it is considered that this flow is due to an indraught of polar water, occasioned by the surface efflux of equatorial water resulting from the action of the Trade Winds. To myself (not professing more than an elementary knowledge of physics) it seemed probable, on the principle of "least action," that the surface-water so removed would be replaced by an inflow from some other part of the oceanic surface, that is, by a horizontal circulation, rather than by an uprising of the whole subjacent mass, so as to draw in polar *See his Address on "The Distribution of Temperature in the North

Atlantic," NATURE, July 27.

water at the bottom, and I have pointed out that such a surface-replacement is known to take place in the case of the Gulf Stream, one portion of which directly returns into the equatorial current, completing the shorter circulation, whilst the other has its complement in the Greenland, Labrador, and other polar surface-currents, of which the principal is traceable southwards nearly as far as the exit of the Gulf Stream from the Narrows, thus completing the longer circulation.

The correctness of this "common-sense" judgment was most emphatically affirmed, on the basis of profound physical knowledge, by Sir William Thomson and Prof. Stokes. It was agreed by these high authorities that in the open ocean the action of wind on the surface can never produce any other than a surface movement; the water propelled onwards from one part of the oceanic. area being replaced by a surface inflow from other parts It is, therefore, for my opponents to explain how, otherwise than by gravity, it happens that polar water finds itself at the depth of 2,000 fathoms under the equator. That the bottom-temperature of the equatorial area, if there were no movement of polar water towards the equator, would be at least 20° higher than it is, may be the Mediterranean, which is cut off from communication asserted without the least hesitation; the temperature of with the lower stratum of the Atlantic, [being 54° at corresponding depths.

Stokes, that when a wind blows continuously into a loch It was agreed by Sir William Thomson and Prof. or fiord, so as to produce a rise of water at its head to the amount of 6, 8, or 10 feet, such an excess or vertical pressuch outflow being afforded by the continuance of the sure produces an outward under-current; the evidence of surface in-current at the rate of three or four miles per hour, without any further increase in the rise of water at the head of the loch. This exceptional case was advanced by Sir W. Thomson as strongly confirming my general principle, not as invalidating it; and I would therefore recommend Mr. Croll to test his method of investigat on by this ascertained fact, rather than spend his time in demonstrating the impossibility of what he may hereafter have to admit as no less certainly proved.

H.M.S. Shearwater, Malta, Sept. 29

IN

WILLIAM B. CARPENTER

SCIENCE IN ITALY

N NATURE for June 8, I sketched a short notice of some of the Italian scientific serials, among them the Annali di Chimica Applicata alla Medicina, published at Milan. With the commencement of the present year the Gazetta Chimica Italiana has been launched at Palermo. The project of this publication originated in Florence with a society of Italian chemists, who met there in October last, and resolved to entrust the first year's "direction" of the magazine to Prof. Stanilaus Cannizzaro of the University of Palermo.

The Italian Chemical Gazette very nearly resembles the Fournal of the Chemical Society of London. Like this it contains, first, original memoirs ; second, translations or abstracts of the most important foreign chemical memoirs ; third, a review of technological chemistry, agricultural chemistry, and crystallography; fourth, a summary of the principal chemical journals of Germany, England, and France; fifth, miscellaneous notes that may be interesting to those who cultivate chemical science. It is published monthly.

The most prominent, the longest, and most interesting of the original papers is by Prof. Cannizzaro: "Historical notes and reflections on the Application of the Atomic Theory to Chemistry, and on the Systems of Formulæ for expressing the Constitution of Compounds." This paper is continued in the number for January, April, and May,

THE CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM

NATURE of April 20 last appeared a short paragraph, stating that this "enterprise, of which great scientific use can certainly be made," was taking form, and that when some of the marine animals were introduced, and the thing was in working order, a description of it would be given.

and is not yet completed. The following extract from the
introductory observations will indicate the spirit in which
it is written :-"A few are still dissatisfied with the argu-IN
ments against the dualistic system, and continue to em-
ploy the atomic weights of Berzelius, or the equivalents of
Gmelin; and among those who have adopted the new
system of atomic weights and formula, there are many
who have done so merely in a spirit of concession, and
make a display of scepticism respecting its intrinsic value ;
others, on the contrary, push their faith to the extent
of fanaticism, and give equal value to the essential
and accessory parts of the system, or even cling to hypo-
theses that merely lean against it or have been discarded.
They often speak on molecular subjects with as much dog-
matic assurance as though they had actually realised the
ingenious fiction of Laplace-had constructed a micro-
scope by which they could detect the molecules, and ob-
serve the number, form, and arrangement of their con-
stituent atoms, and even determine the direction and
intensity of their mutual actions. These things, which
have been offered merely as hypotheses more or less
probable, and to be taken for what they are worth as
simple artifices of the intellect, are valuable, and have
done good service in collocating facts and inciting to
further careful investigations that one day or other may
lead to a true chemical theory; but when perverted by
being stated as actual truths, they falsify the intellectual
education of students of inductive science, and bring re-
proach upon the modern progress of chemical science."

We learned a great deal from Italy in the Middle Ages, and may yet learn more. I earnestly commend the above lesson to some of our laboratory aspirants, who are occupying themselves in ringing the changes upon organic compounds, and who afterwards describe their atomic achievements as glibly, mechanically, and confidently, as though they had been laying bricks or piling shot.

An interesting paper (a note it is modestly called) on "The Absorbent Power of Red_Phosphorus" is contributed to the May number, by Fausto Sestini, from the Laboratory of the Royal Technical Institute of Udine. (Udine is a small town, smaller than Croydon, and situated about 70 miles N.E. of Venice. How many of such towns in England have Royal Technical Institutes with laboratories for original research ?) The author finds that red phosphorus absorbs many substances without combining with them, after the manner of porous charcoal. Thus it may be made to take up 3.369 per cent. of iodine, a considerable quantity of sulphur, rosaniline, &c. This power of "chemical adhesion" may be easily and strikingly shown by shaking powdered red phosphorus in a test tube containing a coloured solution of iodine in bisulphide of carbon. When a sufficient quantity of phosphorus is used, the whole of the iodine is taken up and the solvent rendered colourless. Rosaline is similarly removed from an etherial solution, and a portion of it may be again recovered unaltered from the phosphorus by washing with alcohol.

The July number contains some further contributions by Sestini from the same laboratory, on the proportions of bisulphide of carbon, its solubility in water, and the compounds formed by its contact with aqueous solutions of the oxides of the metals of the alkaline earths. Also some interesting communications from the laboratory of the University of Siena by Prof. G. Campani, among which is one showing that the absorption bands of an ammoniacal solution of carmine so closely coincide with those of blood, as to be undistinguishable in a spectroscope with a scale of twenty degrees. Mr. Sorby will probably be able to tell us whether any difference is distinguishable by more minute examination.

Lieben and Rossi contribute a series of rather important papers on some of the alcohols, and besides these there are some of the ordinary miscellaneous contributions to organic chemistry. W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS

The building undertaken by the Crystal Palace Aquarium Company was commenced in July 1870, much too late therefore to be opened when at first contemplated, April 1, 1871, though at Easter last half a dozen of the marine tanks were temporarily converted into freshwater ones, and some pike, tench, carp, eels, &c., were shown therein for three days; when the place was closed, and the progress of the works continued, and then the establishment was finally opened on August 22, 1871. It would have been well if the sea-water had been in good condition in the early part of the summer, so that advantage might have been taken of the then exceptionally cool weather to transport some of the great abundance of animals at that time on the coasts of England; but that was not possible, and then, when the water was fit, the weather became very hot, and the sending of many animals was thereby prevented. Such creatures as could be got, however, were obtained, and the opportunity is now being taken of the present increasingly colder season to add other animals constantly, so that in a short time most of the tanks will be populated.

The accompanying plan, on page 471, drawn to a scale of about 50 ft. to 1 in., shows the ground occupied by the Aquarium and its adjuncts to be nearly 400ft. long and 70ft. broad, and it is situated at the northern end of the Palace, on a portion of the site of it burnt in 1865. It is of one story high, and, therefore, this ground plan shows everything, except the sea-water reservoir beneath the Saloon GG, extending under its whole width, and running below Tanks 9 and 10, and going lengthwise from E to H2. This reservoir contains 80,000 gallons of seawater, and the tanks above contain 20,000 gallons, in all 100,000, gallons weighing a million pounds; and the fact of the aggregate contents of the tanks being only one-fourth of the contents of the reservoir, is extremely serviceable in keeping the water clear, as, supposing the water in, say tank 10 (holding 4,000 gallons), became turbid from any cause, it can be emptied by syphons in less than an hour into the reservoir, where so comparatively small a quantity of fluid would not appreciably disturb the purity of so great a mass, from which, in less than half an hour, No. 10 can again be filled, and thus all the tanks where animals exist, are, by being constantly pumped into, day and night, from the large, clear, and cool reservoir below, where there are no creatures, kept ever in good order. The main aëration which is thus depended on for the health of the creatures, is by these means produced by mechanical agitation, and the quantity of sea-weed necessary to decompose the poisonous carbonic acid gas evolved from the animals, which could not be effected by mechanical agitation, is grown upon the rocks of the aquarium by the action of light on the spores of algae existing invisibly in the water. As the motion of the water needs to be incessant, all the machinery is in duplicate, there being two boilers, each of four horse power, two steam-engines, each of three horse power, and two of Forbes's patent pumps, and one of each is kept ever in action, the other being in reserve in case of accident. The sea-water issuing from the pumps at the rate (indicated by a counter, while a tell-tale clock furnishes evidence of the attention of three enginemen, each working for eight consecutive hours) of from 5,000 to 7,000 gallons an hour, passes in the first place into the two highest tanks, 9 and io, half into each, and from thence it runs, diverging north and south, as far as tanks 18 and 1. From 18 it flows into 60, and from I into 39, in each case passing

[graphic][graphic]

FRONT VIEW OF TANK NO. 10 (18 FEET LONG), CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM.

FRONT VIEW OF TANK NO. 9 (18 FEET LONG), CRYSTAL PALACK AQUARIUM.

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