carious independency. But the last refuge of the Britons, and the most conspicuous seat of their independence, was that part of the island now called Wales. In that mountainous region, the relics of the British nation, in a great measure, relapsed into barbarism, and continued for some ages in that state. They were divided into petty principalities, in which their princes had a great, but ill defined power. The estates "of the gentry were encumbered with numerous services. The common people were but little regarded, and industry was totally discouraged. The same impolitic conduct, which rendered them incapable of resisting the Saxons, continued when the contest was over. Sometimes their petty principalities were united under one sovereign; sometimes they were not only divided and independent of one another, but very frequently engaged in mutual hostilities. Their intestine quarrels always prevented them from pursuing any common interest; and private resentments domineered over every public consideration. Reiterated scenes of anarchy, and confirmed habits of rapine, rendered them inattentive to the arts of peace. Small villages, composed of mean huts, intermixed with a number of little churches, chapels, monasteries, and hermitages, were scattered over the country; but no new towns were built, and the old ones were suffered to fall into ruins. Predatory war became the great, and almost the only object of their pursuit. Thus, they lived without any respite from war, and without any regular political constitution or legislative system; sometimes conforming to their old customs, and sometimes directed by their clergy. At length Howel the Good, having united the different principalities, and obtained the sovereignty of all Wales, composed a complete code of laws, which were promulgated A. D. 943. The sequel of their history presents little else than a succession of the same scenes of depredation and restless hostility; until Edward I. annexed Wales to the English dominions, and thus effected the civilization of its inhabitants.

We now return to the affairs of the Saxons. The seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy were not established at once, nor in consequence of any preconcerted plan; but at different pe

riods, extending from A. D. 457, till A. D. 627, and by the operation of various contingencies. Their names were Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northumberland, East Anglia, and Mercia.

One hundred and seventy years elapsed, from the arrival of Hengist, to the complete establishment of the seven kingdoms; a length of time which sufficiently shews how difficult the expulsion of the Britons was found. During these calamitous times, war was the only subject of attention; scenes of desolation were widely spread, and the miseries of the inhabitants darken the pages of the histories of that age. All Europe, during this gloomy period, displayed a similar view: a dismal chasm, unenlightened by the rays of science, every where appears. No traces of literature, nor any marks of civilization appear, until the introduction of Christianity. Before that important event, no arts (except those of absolute necessity) had made any advancement. From this epoch, science and literature began to dawn among the Saxons. The rational and benevolent precepts of the gospel are found, by experience, to be eminently conducive to the improvement and happiness of society.

The different kingdoms which composed the Saxon Heptarchy, were involved in frequent wars; and their public affairs often ill managed. Egbert, king of the West Saxons, observing their debilitated and unsettled state, projected the design of their conquest, or at least of their coalition, under his own paramount government. He ascended the throne of the West Saxon kingdom, A. D. 800, and immediately began to meditate his grand design. His military operations commenced by the reduction of West Wales, which was followed by that of Mercia. The reduction of the kingdom of Northumberland, A. D. 827, ten years after that of Mercia, completed the extinction of the Heptarchy, after it had subsisted about 200 years. In the course of this period 96 kings reigned in England.

The Northumberland and Mercian kingdoms, both remained under the tributary government of their own princes, who reigned as vassals to Egbert. He summoned a general assembly at Winchester, and declared that the kingdom should

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be called England, and the people Englishmen. This assembly is generally supposed to have been convened for the purpose of moulding the whole coalesced kingdom, into one regular political system. But the deliberations were soon interrupted by an unexpected event, which was the commencement of disasters which extended nearly two centuries. The Danes, landing in different parts of the coast, ravaged the country in a deplorable manner. Egbert, assembling his forces, marched against them, and a battle was fought A. D. 833, in which the victory seems to have been doubtful; but the loss on both sides was very considerable. Two years afterwards, he totally defeated the combined forces of the Danes, and the revolted Britons of Cornwall. This victory restored the tranquillity of the kingdom, during the short remainder of the reign of Egbert, who died the year following.

Ethelwolf, his soir and successor, was successful in repelling the Danish invasions, and restored the tranquillity of his kingdom. His two younger sons, Ethelbert and Etheldred, successively, ascended the throne. The reigns of these two princes were extremely calamitous; for the Danes ravaged all parts of England for more than thirty years. The ravages of these invaders converted the greatest part of the island into a desert.

England was reduced to the most deplorable condition when Alfred, the youngest son of Ethelwolf, succeeded to its precarious crown. Within less than a year after his accession, he fought nine battles against the Danes, with various success. At last his forces were so much diminished by incessant war, and those of the enemy so increased by successive multitudes of their countrymen from the continent, that he was obliged to dismiss his faithful adherents, and to retire into the fens of Somersetshire, where he took shelter in the isle of Athelney, a place, at that time, almost inaccessible. It was situated at the confluence of the Parret and the Thone, and consisted of only two or three acres of firm ground, in the middle of impassable morasses, formed by the overflowing waters of those rivers. In this sequestered retreat, it is supposed that he formed the plan of his future military operations;

Alfred

and of the political and legislative system, which he afterwards established.

Alfred, after remaining some time concealed, finding a favourable opportunity, collected an army, and emerging from his retreat, surprised and defeated the Danes. He then concluded a peace with Cuthrum their chief. His future enterprises were so successful, that having recovered London, and several other places of importance from the Danes, and given to his kingdom a regular form, he enacted in the twentysecond year of his reign A. D. 893, a code of laws, which are as prudently adapted to existing circumstances, as any of the boasted systems of antiquity.

These laws served as the basis of the Saxon, and eventually of the English constitution. Their general outlines shew the excellence of Alfred's government; and, in some measure, develope the state of society in those days. In each county was placed a governor, or lord lieutenant; and the shire reeve, whom we, by contraction, style sheriff, was the acting officer. The king's thanes constituted the next order of nobility; after them, were the under or middle thanes; and the yeomen were the lowest class of freeholders. All these had their respective rights and privileges; and as an encouragement to industry, those who acquired a degree of wealth sufficient for the support of its dignity, might enter into a superior order. Vassals also, and servants, although not freemen, were under the protection of the laws. To understand the Anglo Saxon constitution, it is necessary to be acquainted with the nature of the witena-gemotes, or general assemblies of wisemen, which, with various modifications, had constituted, from time immemorial, the legislative bodies of the Germans, and probably of all the northern nations. After the introduction of Christianity, and the advancement of the Saxons in civilization, the prelates sat in these assemblies, with the earls, thanes, and witts. The members of these convocations had a deliberative voice in the making and repealing of laws, and a judicial voice in regard to civil and criminal causes. To this great national council, the more refined and more perfectly orga nized senate of Great Britain may be traced; and from the

same source, the states general and parliaments of France, the cortes of Spain, and various other institutions of a similar nature, undoubtedly originated.

The restoration of religion, which, during the Danish depredations had been almost annihilated, was among the first and principal cares of this judicious prince, who rightly considered it as the basis of all good government. In fegard to military affairs he was equally prudent and methodical. He established in every county a regular and well disciplined militia, which was always ready for service. The naval force was also properly regulated and stationed in convenient ports; the towns and fortresses were repaired; and the ravaged and desolate provinces, repeopled and cultivated.

This monarch saw and lamented the low state of learning among his subjects, and adopted every possible measure for its restoration. The universal ignorance which prevailed throughout England, was the necessary consequence of those continued scenes of devastation which had, during so long a period, spread themselves through every part of the country. In those predatory wars, every thing that exhibited any marks of opulence or civilization, was plundered and destroyed. Almost every town in the kingdom was reduced to a heap of ruins. The monasteries, in those days the principal, and almost the only receptacles and seminaries of learning, were all plundered, and most of them destroyed, and the religious every where massacred or expelled. In this deplorable state of things, when every one's attention was solely directed to the single object of self preservation, and continually occupied with projects of resistance or escape, the improvement of the human mind was neglected, and almost every trace of literature, as well as of religion obliterated.

To remedy these inconveniences, and promote the restoration of learning among his subjects, Alfred established seminaries in different places. He is generally regarded as the founder, or at least the restorer of the famous university of Oxford. This monarch invited from all countries the most learned professors. These he encouraged by his liberality, and animated by his example; for although so great a part of