council having charge of the collection of taxes, of the disputes between the citizens, and, in general, of municipal affairs. Each of these councilors was to act in turn as president for the space of a month. All of these new municipal bodies were placed under the charge of a new department, which had no connection with the existing ministries, but could report directly to the Tsar. This foreign institution was called by a foreign name, one of the first importations of German terms, the Burmister (burgomaster) Department, or Rátusha (rath-haus). As a compensation for being freed from the exactions of the Voievodes, and for the introduction of municipal government, the merchants were obliged for the future to pay double taxes. It always takes time to become accustomed to independence which has not been given gradually, but has been thrust on a nation, and one of the first results of the municipal institutions was that the merchants elected rulers out of their own body who were as bad as those they supplanted. Corruption and bribery speedily found their way here. The first case brought before the notice of the Tsar-that of the town of Venev-was severely punished; both bribers and bribe-takers were beaten with the knout, and sent, with their wives and children, to hard labor at Azof. It was decreed

that such offenses in future should be punished with death; but even that did not avail.

Shortly after the introduction of stamped paper and of municipal councils, came another decree, which also had reference to the increase of general prosperity and of the state revenues. That was the re-organization of the monetary system. The only coins at that time circulating in Russia were small, oval bits of silver called kopéks, very badly stamped with St. George on one side and the title of the Tsar on the other. The quality of the silver and the size of the coin had varied at different periods. In the time of the Tsar Alexis, an attempt was made to reform the currency with advantage to the

as the real value of the copper was so far below its nominal value, the price of articles increased in the ratio of one to fifteen. The dearness of provisions caused a riot, which was only quelled with difficulty and with great effusion of blood. It was found necessary to return to the old system. Although the kopék was the only coin, yet accounts were kept in rubles, altýns, and déngas; a dénga being the half of a kopék, an altýn being three kopeks, and a ruble one hundred kopeks. It was necessary, therefore, for the purposes of small change, to use bits of stamped leather, or to cut the kopéks into halves and quarters. Undeterred by the failure of his father, Peter resolved on a rational reform, and began by coining copper for the purposes of small change, of the same-or nearly the samereal value as the silver; it was necessary, therefore, to make a copper kopék forty-five times as heavy as a silver one. quently, the copper pieces, being not tokens but actual coins, were of very large size, which, though inconvenient, gave satisfaction to a primitive people. After the copper After the copper came a gold coinage of single and double ducats, with the portrait of the Tsar on one side and the arms of Russia on the other; then a silver coinage of grivenniks (ten ko

Conse

péks), quarter and half rubles, and finally rubles. In this way, the new coinage was introduced without difficulty, and the old withdrawn from circulation. In the first three years there were coined in this way over nine millions of rubles (£3,700,000, or $18,500,000).

Another measure removed a barrier, though but a slight one, between Russia and the rest of the world. The Russians had been in the habit of beginning the new year on the 1st of September (it being believed that the world was created in the autumn, when all the fruits of the earth were in perfection), and of dating their years from the beginning of the world. On the 20th of December (O. S.), 1699, appeared a decree ordering the year to begin on the 1st of January, and the date to be that from the birth of Christ, and not from the creation of the world-i. e., the year was to be 1700, and not 7208. It was stated in the decree that this change was made in order to conform to the custom of other countries, and Peter defended the change, to those who exclaimed that the world could not have been created in the depth of winter, by desiring them "to view the map of the globe, and, in a pleasant temper, gave them to understand that Russia was not all the

world, and that what was winter with them was, at the same time, always summer in those places beyond the equator." In order to impress this event on the people, special New Year services were held in all the churches, the inhabitants of Moscow were ordered to congratulate each other on the New Year, evergreens were placed on the door-posts of the houses and in the corners of the rooms, fire-works and bonfires were lighted on the Red Place and in the streets, and there was to be a general illumination of private houses for seven days. Feasting went on until Epiphany, when there took place the semi-annual blessing of the river Moskvá. Contrary to previous custom, the Tsar did not seat himself with the Patriarch on his throne, but appeared in uniform at the head of his regiment, drawn up together with other troops, amounting to twelve thousand men, on the thick ice of the river. The new arms and the brilliant uniforms made an excellent impression. It is unfortunate that, when this change was made, the Gregorian calendar was not adopted. But at that time Protestants, as well as orthodox, had a suspicion of the Gregorian calendar as being something peculiarly Romish and Papistical. It was not finally adopted in England until the year 1752. For various reasons, it has never been found convenient to adopt the new style in countries where the orthodox church prevails. The chief objection is that in that church there are many saints' days, and it is feared that there would be disturbances among the peasants and common people if in one year they should be suddenly deprived of twelve days, for at no period of the year could these be taken together without including some great holidays. Still, with Peter's fearlessness and firmness, the change would probably have been made at that time if the new style had been in use in England.

tions of foreign embassadors, carols at Christmas time, daily feasts at the new clubhouse, called Lefort's Palace, absorbed all his leisure time.

"A sham Patriarch and a complete set of scenic clergy dedicated to Bacchus, with solemn festivities, the palace which was built at the Tsar's expense, and which it has pleased him now to have called Lefort's. A procession thither set out from Colonel Lima's house. He that bore the assumed honors of the Patriarch was conspicuous in the vestments proper to a Bishop. Bacchus was decked with a miter and went stark naked, to betoken lasciviousness to the lookers-on. Cupid and Venus were the insignia on his crozier, lest there should be any mistake about what flock he was pastor of. The remaining rout of Bacchanalians came after him, some carrying great bowls full of wine, others mead, others, again, beer and brandy, that last joy of heated Bacchus. And, as the wintry cold hindered their binding their brows with laurel, they carried great dishes of dried tobacco-leaves, with which, when ignited, they went to the remotest corners of the palace, exhaling those most delectable odors and most pleasant incense to Two of those Bacchus from their smutty jaws. pipes through which some people are pleased to puff smoke-a most empty fancy-being set crosswise, served the scenic bishop to confirm the rites of consecration."

During the carnival, on the very day when a hundred and eighty-six Streltsi were executed, there was a feast at Lefort's house, with a grand display of fire-works, which was witnessed by the Tsarévitch and by the Tsar's sister Natalia from another apartment. The next day, the envoy of Brandenburg had a solemn leave-taking, and Mr. de Zadora-Kesielsky was accepted as Resident in his stead.

"The Tsar commanded him to stay for dinner, which was splendid, and at which the envoys of foreign princes and the principal boyars were also present. After dinner was over, the Councilor Zótof, who was

mimic Patriarch when the Tsar wished, began giving toasts. He that drank had on bended knee for mockery to revere the sham ecclesiastical dignitary, and beg the favor of his benediction, which he gave with two tobacco pipes, set in the shape of a cross. He alone, of all the envoys, withdrew furtively, for he held the sacred sign of our Christian faith too holy to approve of such jests. The same prelate added to the decency of the dancing by opening it with pontificals and crozier. The inner apartment, next the room in which the festivities were going on, was again occupied by the Tsarevitch and the Tsar's sister Natalia; thence they saw the dancing and all the gay tumult, the curtains with which the place was most handsomely decorated being drawn a little; and they were only seen through a lattice by the guests. The natural beauty of the Tsarevitch was wonderfully shown off by his civilized German dress and powdered wig. Natalia was escorted by the crême of the married ladies. This day, too, beheld a great departure from Russian manners, which up to this forbade the female sex from appearing at public assemblies of men, and at festive gayeties, for some were not only allowed

to be at dinner, but also at the dancing afterward. The Tsar had arranged to go off to Voronezh that night, for which reason, as Carlowitz was about to return to his sovereign in Poland, after a deal of flattering and envied compliments, he gave him a kiss, telling him to bear it to the King as a manifest token of his everlasting affection. He also gave Carlowitz his picture, exceedingly rich set with a profusion of diamonds, a fruit of that royal goodwill which Carlowitz had managed to win.'

With the trouble in his own family, with the suspicions that his step-sister had been plotting against his life, with the numerous executions, Peter's mind was in such a state that he could not always be quieted by dissipation. At some of these festivities he was morose, and melancholy, and dejected; at others, the slightest cause roused him to anger. A few days after his arrival, at a grand dinner given by Lefort, the Tsar left the room in a rage with his generalissimo Shein, with whom he had been warmly disputing, and nobody knew what he was going to do.

"It was known later that he had gone to question the soldiers, to learn from them how many colonels and other regimental officers that general-in-chief had made without reference to merit, merely for money. In a short time when he came back, his wrath had grown to such a pitch that he drew his sword, and facing the general-in-chief, horrified the guests with

this threat: By striking thus, I will mar thy malgovernment.' Boiling over with well-grounded anger, he appealed to Prince Ramodanófsky, and to Zótof; but finding them excuse the general-in-chief, he grew so hot that he startled all the guests by striking right and left, he knew not where, with his drawn sword. Prince Ramodanófsky had to complain of a cut finger, and another of a slight wound on the head. Zótof was hurt in the hand as the sword was returning from a stroke. A blow far more deadly was aiming at the general-in-chief, who beyond a doubt would have been stretched in his gore by the Tsar's right hand, had not General Lefort (who was almost the only one that might have ventured it), catching the Tsar in his arms, drawn back his hand from the stroke. But the Tsar, taking it ill that any person should dare to hinder him from sating his most just wrath, wheeled round upon the spot, and struck his unwelcome impeder a hard blow on the back. He is the only one that knew what remedy to apply; none of the Muscovites is more beloved by the Tsar than he. This man so mitigated his ire that, threatening only, he abstained from murder. Merriment followed this dire tempest: the Tsar, with a face full of smiles, was present at the dancing, and, to show his mirth, commanded the musicians to play the tunes to which (so he said) he had danced at his most beloved lord and brother's, when that most august host was entertaining exalted guests. Two young ladies departing by stealth were, at an order from the Tsar, brought back by soldiers."

In the case of Shéïn, there was probably just cause for the Tsar's anger. We learn

that when it was known that the Tsar was coming back so quickly, the astonished boyárs held councils twice a day, and, under threat of the whip, forced the merchants' clerks to make out their accounts for them. The promotions of officers made by Shéïn in the Tsar's absence were all canceled.

On another occasion, finding Menshikóf dancing with his sword on, he taught him to lay it aside by cuffing him with such force that the blood spouted from his nose. At a dinner at Colonel Chambers', Korb says:

"An inexplicable whirlwind troubled the gayeties. Seizing upon General Lefort and flinging him on the floor, the Tsarish Majesty kicked him. He that is next to the fire is nearest to burning." On another occasion, in a dispute between Leo Naryshkin and Prince Boris Galítsyn, the Tsar "loudly threatened that he would cut short the dispute with the head of one or the other, whichever should be found most in fault. He commissioned Ramodanófsky to examine into the affair, and with a violent blow