in education seem to consider the work in its non-professional aspect. The science and art of education are regarded as subjects for research and investigation, or as means of liberal culture, akin to history and political science. Such work has its place, but unsupported, it plays no very important rôle in training teachers for secondary schools.

I find that the institutions giving professional courses in education for intending teachers in secondary schools are in general agreement as to what should be done, although few of them are able to realize their ideals. The diploma, or teacher's certificate, which is granted on the completion of a prescribed course, in the best colleges requires as a rule the bachelor's degree and a certain amount of work in the history and philosophy of education and in educational psychology and practice in teaching.

An educational code. The best legislation which can be given us is that which will require secondary teachers to earn certificates in the subjects which they teach and which will prohibit their teaching subjects in which they are not certificated.

The lowest requirements which we can consistently make for such a diploma or certificate are as follows:

(1) The candidate must be a college graduate, at least when he receives the diploma, if not when entering upon the course, or have the equivalent of a college education.

(2) He must satisfactorily complete courses in (a) the history of education, (b) the philosophy of education, (c) psychology and its applications in teaching, and (d) school economy, especially school hygiene - an allotment, say, of eight hours a week throughout one year.

(3) As evidence of the special knowledge required in each subject in which a diploma is sought the candidate should be able to show the equivalent of at least three years' collegiate study of that subject three to five hours a week. But whatever be the requirement in credit-hours, provision should be made for securing a sufficient degree of special scholarship as a prerequisite to what I consider the gateway to actual teaching, viz.: a course in the special methods of teaching each subject elected. Such a course may very properly be conducted wholly or in part by the university department which is responsible for the academic training in subject matter.

(4) The candidate must be given opportunity to observe good teaching, study its methods under guidance, and finally give instruction under normal conditions long enough to demonstrate his ability to teach.

This plan will enable a thoroughly good college student who chooses his electives wisely to secure a teacher's diploma in one or two subjects, e. g., Latin and Greek, physics and chemistry, at the same time that he gets his bachelor's degree. For the college graduate it provides a one-year professional course which will enable him, granted that he has the requisite academic preparation, to secure a diploma in two or three related subjects.

A need for united effort. I am happy to say that the scheme just outlined is no utopian dream; it is being realized wholly or in part in several of our universities. That it is entirely practicable I am able to affirm from my own experience in Columbia University. We have encountered many difficulties, to be sure, and I suspect my colleagues in other institutions have troubles of their own,

E

CHAPTER III

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS FOR

ADMISSION TO COLLEGE

XAMINATIONS are presumably means to an end, not an end in themselves. Their value will be determined by the service they render in the attainment of the desired ends. In school work the interested parties are the pupil who is entitled to make the most of himself, the teacher whose professional reputation is at stake, and the school or educational system which is supported directly or indirectly by the public for the public good.

There can be no doubt of the educational value of examinations to those who conduct the examinations. Our daily experience shows conclusively enough that success in life depends largely upon the critical acumen which precedes and influences judgment. Perhaps this is one reason (it is hardly becoming in me to make the suggestion) why colleges cling so tenaciously to the privilege of examining candidates for admission.

Ability to pass examinations an asset. But seriously, it is good for a boy occasionally to have to pass formal examinations. He may some day want to be a civil servant a policeman, a street sweeper, or a teacher (this is not intended to be an anticlimax) and then he

A revised reprint from the SCHOOL REVIEW, 1903, used by courtesy of the publishers.

use in life for the ability to conceal his own ignorance. And when we consider, in the words of Richard Baxter, "how very little it is that we know in comparison to that we are ignorant of," it will be seen that the ability to veneer this vast body of ignorance with a respectable coating of usable information is an accomplishment not lightly to be regarded. It might also be mentioned in this appreciation of the educational value of examinations (for those who are examined) that there is nothing more likely to take the conceit out of a fellow than a try at a paper set by persons whom he doesn't know in a subject which he thinks he does know. A modern philosopher has remarked: "A reasonable amount of fleas is good for a dog; they keep him f'm broodin' on bein' a dog.”

Testing instructional efficiency. — The topic, as I understand it, excludes the consideration of examinations given in the course of instruction for the purpose of making that instruction more efficient. Such tests as written recitations, quizzes, term and final examinations, and the like are of the greatest value to the teacher who is really concerned in educating his pupils. These examinations are indispensable; they need no argument to justify the position they hold in our scheme of instruction. But examinations conducted by outside authorities are in another category. They, too, may have a place and be valuable, but the justification must come from some other

source.

Valuation of extra-mural tests. From the standpoint of the pupil, examinations conducted by persons