44

CROMWELL'S TREATY WITH SWEDEN.

[Book V. in excuse for their master's haying assumed the title of King of Sweden alleged the example of the English sovereigns, who bore the title of Kings of France; of the King of Denmark, who called himself King of the Goths and Vandals; and of Henry III. of France, who had continued till the end of his life to use the title of King of Poland. Charles remained inexorable. He wanted a pretext for war, and this was the best that he could find. There was nothing in the state of Europe to deter him from his project. The Emperor was occupied with the internal affairs of the Empire; Denmark, as we have said, was weakened by internal discord; Holland, the State most likely to oppose the designs of Charles, had just terminated an expensive war with England, and was also crippled by dissensions at home; France and Spain were entirely occupied with the war then raging between them; and the Protector Cromwell had no wish to arrest the progress of Sweden; a State which, besides being energetically Protestant, was also the decided opponent of Holland. A treaty was even concluded between England and Sweden, by which Charles X. promised to favour the Baltic commerce of the English rather than that of the Dutch; while Cromwell engaged, so long as it should be necessary, to put twenty ships of war at the service of Sweden, and to allow recruits for that country to be levied in England and Scotland.12

Charles X.'s plan was to break in two directions through Pomerania and Livonia into Poland, already weakened by the attacks of the Russians and Cossacks; and by means also of its internal dissensions to induce some of its provinces to come under a voluntary subjection. Dantzic, which enjoyed an independent government, was to be blockaded by the Swedish fleet, which, as in the time of Gustavus Adolphus, was to levy dues, and thus in time compel that city to submit to Sweden. In July 1655, Field-marshal Count Wittenberg, governor of Swedish Pomerania, received instructions to enter Great Poland with 17,000 men. A Polish army, under the Palatines of Posen and Kalisch, offered to dispute the passage of the Netze, when Radzejowski, who accompanied Wittenberg, persuaded the Polish, commanders to place their Palatinates under the protection of Sweden. Charles X. himself, with an army of 15,000 veterans, landed near Wolgast towards the end of July and proceded to Stettin. The fleet which had conveyed him, consisting of forty vessels of war under Charles Gustavus Wrangel, was then despatched to blockade the road of Dantzic. The King entered Poland early in August, passed the Netze at Czarnikow, and

12 A considerable number of British troops and officers fought under the Swe

dish banners in this war, as they had done in the time of Gustavus Adolphus.

formed a junction with Wittenberg at Conin-on-the-Warta. march resembled rather a triumphal procession than a hostile inroad. The nobles flocked from all sides to claim his protection, and compared him to "their good king Ladislaus." The many enemies by which John Casimir was attacked had compelled him to divide his forces. One division under Potocki opposed the Cossacks; Radzivill, with a second, was defending Lithuania against the Russians; whilst the King himself, with a third, marched against the Swedes, whom he met at Sobota, August 23rd. Here John Casimir was entirely defeated, and Charles, leaving Wittenberg to pursue him, marched directly on Warsaw, which surrendered unconditionally, August 30th. He had only just anticipated an attempt on the same city by the Russians, who had despatched some troops thither from Grodno. John Casimir after his defeat had retreated towards Cracow and attempted to surprise Wittenberg's camp; but that general having been rejoined by the King, the Poles were again defeated at Zarnowa. After these events, the greater part of the Polish cavalry dispersed; the Swedes pursued John Casimir with forced marches, and again defeated him on the river Donajek, near Cracow, September 21st. The Polish King now lost all hope, and fled to Oppeln in Silesia, to behold from a distance the misfortunes of his country. Cracow, which had been bravely defended by Stephen Czarnecki, opened its gates to the Swedes, October 8th. Soon after the Polish standing army called Quartians, took the oath of fidelity to Charles X. Poland seemed now in a state of utter dissolution. Most of the Polish nobles made their submission to Charles in person at Cracow, or to his representatives at Warsaw; though twenty-two of the senators offered the Polish crown to the Emperor. The army of Potocki, which had been beaten by the Cossacks, submitted to the Swedes. Horn, landing at Stettin with reinforcements, had occupied Pomerelia and secured the King of Sweden's rear. Field-marshal Stenbock, crossing the Bug at its confluence with the Vistula, had defeated the army of Vasovia, and secured that province. In Lithuania, Minsk, Grodno, and Wilna having been taken by the Russians, Radzivill submitted to De la Gardie, the Swedish governor of Livonia. Charles was recognised as Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the States of that province, as well as of Samogitia, made their formal submission in October.

Conquests so rapid and extensive seemed almost to place this expedition of Charles X. on a par with that of his great pre

13 So called because a fourth part of the crown lands was set apart for their maintenance. Among their colonels who

took the oath to Charles was John Sobieski, afterwards King of Poland.

. 46

FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE GREAT ELECTOR. [BOOK V.

decessor Gustavus Adolphus to the Rhine. Yet the Swedish King did not feel himself altogether secure. The Tartars were reported to be in motion. The Russians, who now held the greater part of Lithuania, were dangerous neighbours; and the Czar announced, by the assumption of the titles of "Grand Prince of Lithuania, White Russia, Volhynia, and Podolia,"14 that he did not intend to resign his conquests. The Poles themselves could not be confidently relied on, and Prussia, one of the chief objects of the war, had not yet been reduced. Above all, Charles was anxious about the conduct of the Elector of Brandenburg, who had been negociating with his enemies, John Casimir and the Dutch, and had finally entered West Prussia with 8000 men; where calling the States together, he made a treaty with them to resist any attempt on the part of the Swedes to obtain possession of Prussia. As the events of this Swedish invasion, and the policy adopted by the Elector of Brandenburg with regard to it, are among the chief causes which finally led to the establishment of the Prussian monarchy, it will be useful to examine with some attention the character, motives, and actions of that prince.

We have already recorded 15 the accession of Frederick William, commonly called the "Great Elector," to the electorate of Brandenburg in 1640. His dominions were then exposed to all the risks and dangers of the Thirty Years' War; but the first steps of the young Elector, for he was only twenty years of age at the time of his accession, were marked by the greatest prudence and circumspection. He hastened to conclude an armistice with Sweden, which he the more readily obtained as a marriage was at that time in contemplation between him and Christina, the heiress of the Swedish throne. The conduct of the Elector during the remainder of the war was such as to procure him, as we have already seen, very favourable terms at the Peace of Westphalia. One of the most remarkable features of Frederick William's character was his piety. He had adopted the Calvinistic faith, the religion of his grandfather, John Sigismund; but he rejected its most characteristic feature, that of election and predestination, and he required that the doctrine of universal grace should be preached in all the churches of the Mark. Every morning and evening he had prayers in his apartments; on Sundays he twice attended church; he often took the Sacrament with the congregation; he strictly observed the four yearly fasts; and he forbade any mythological images to be used upon his coins. His chief study was the Bible,

14 Herrman, Gesch. Russlands, B. iii. S. 629 Anm.

15 Vol. II. p. 610.

which he always carried with him on his journeys; and even his motto was selected from the holy volume: "Cause me to know the way wherein I should walk."( Psalm exliii.)

Frederick William had paid particular attention to his finances, which were in a flourishing condition. He was very sparing in his personal expenses; but the political exigencies of the time compelled him to maintain a standing army, which had been gradually increased from 8000 men, till at the time of the Swedish invasion it numbered 26,000, with 72 guns. As his States were opposed to so heavy a charge, he had been sometimes obliged to resort to compulsion, and act against the law and the mediaval rights which stood in his way; for his political conscience was somewhat broad, and allowed him, in spite of his motto, to choose the path which seemed most advantageous; to join the stronger party and loose himself from the weaker, as interest dictated. One of the chief objects of his ambition was to shake off the feudal bonds by which he held his duchy of Prussia under the elective kings of Poland, whose weakness he despised. He had at first wished to arrange the differences between Sweden and Poland in an amicable manner; but seeing war inevitable, he consulted how he might best turn it to his advantage. His military strength made him a desirable ally for either party, and he had also fortified himself by an alliance with the Dutch. The Rhenish possessions which had fallen to him by the succession of Juliers rendered the friendship of that people important to him; but the negociations had been so long protracted, that the Swedish invasion of Poland gave a new object to them, and induced the States-General to league themselves with the Elector. On the 27th of July 1655 a treaty was concluded at the Hague for mutual defence, to include the Elector's possessions on the Baltic; and Frederick William engaged to protect the Dutch commerce in that sea.

While these negociations were going on with the States, Charles X. had also been endeavouring to bring over the Elector to his side. Conferences had taken place at Stettin, in which the Brandenburg plenipotentiaries had tried to dissuade the Swedish King from his projects; but finding him resolved, had offered to unite the Electoral forces with his, if Charles would engage to free Prussia from Polish vassalage. But this agreed not at that time with Charles's plans, and the success of his arms rendered him every day less conciliating. Frederick William, on his side, reckoning that the Poles might be able to hold out till the spring, when aid might be expected from all sides, had been induced, as already related, to enter West Prussia with his forces, and in

48

CHARLES X. SUBDUES PRUSSIA.

[Book V.

November 1655, he concluded with the Prussian nobles an agreement for the defence of the duchy; but the towns of Dantzic, Elbing, and Thorn kept aloof.16

This step of the Elector's gave great offence to the King of Sweden, and afforded another motive for marching into Prussia. He himself, having recruited his army with 7000 Poles, set out from Warsaw; Stenbock with his division preceding him down the Vistula, while De la Gardie marched in the same direction from Lithuania. Thorn and Elbing soon opened their gates to the Swedish forces. Charles then marched against the Elector, and having taken Welau on the Pregel (Dec. 15th), compelled him to shut himself up in Königsberg, the capital of his duchy. Frederick William, finding that he could expect no assistance from the Dutch, was now compelled to yield; and he authorised his ministers to sign with the Swedish Chancellor, Eric Oxenstiern, a treaty by which he recognised himself as the vassal of Sweden instead of Poland; bound himself to assist the Swedes in their wars, and to allow them free passage through the Duchy of Prussia, with the use of the ports, &c. After its execution the Elector visited the King at Bartenstein, where they spent some days together in great apparent friendship.

All Charles's plans seemed now to be crowned with complete success, and nothing appeared necessary to his recognition as King of Poland except a coronation. But his conquests were too rapid to be lasting, and had, indeed, been conducted in a manner which entailed their loss. The Polish nobles had been offended by Charles's haughtiness; the people were incited by the priests to defend their religion against the heretic Swedes; and they were naturally anxious to preserve their property, which in many instances had I been seized by Charles for the support of his troops. The embers of lurking discontent were busily stirred by John Casimir, and during the absence of Charles in Prussia they burst into an open flame. The Swedes were massacred wherever they were the smaller number. Potocki's troops, who had submitted with reluctance to the Swedes, suddenly broke up from Lublin, and marched towards Red Russia (Gallicia), calling on the Poles to

A confederacy had been formed at Tyrcowicz, which was confirmed by John Casimir, Jan. 5th 1656. That monarch had recrossed the Polish borders with a small body of cavalry towards the end of the year, and having joined the force under Lubomirski, had marched to join Potocki and the Tartars, who were announced to be hastening to his assistance.

Although it was mid winter, the King of Sweden, when he heard 16 Puffendorf, De Rebus Gest. Frid. Wilhelmi, p. 252 sqq.