the strength of a small number of lines reversed, zinc and aluminium (and possibly strontium) to the last list of solar elements given by Thalen, who rejected zinc from Kirchhoff's list, and agreed with him in rejecting aluminium. It need scarcely be added that these lines are in each case the longest lines in the spectrum of the metal.

The help which these determinations afford to the study of the various cyclical changes in the various solar spectra is then referred to.

Geological Society, Dec. 18.-Mr. Warington W. Smyth, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.-The following communications were read :-" Further Notes on the Punfield Section," by C. J. A. Meyer. This paper was supplementary to one read before the society by the author in March of the present year (see "Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc." xxviii. p. 245), and contained the results of a fresh examination of the section at Punfield, and of the Wealden and Neocomian strata of the Isle of Wight. He described the section exposed at his visit to Punfield as presenting --1, True Wealden beds; 2, a grit-bed with limestone and paper-shales, containing fish-bones and Cyprides; 3, apparently argillaceous beds; 4, a thin band of hard ferruginous sandstone with Atherfield fossils; 5, a clay bed, the upper part regarded as representing the "Lobster Clay of Atherfield, the lower sandy portion containing an abundance of marine fossils belong ing to common Atherfield species; 6, the so-called "marine band;" and 7, laminated clays and sands with lignite. The author indicated the accordance of this arrangement with what is observed elsewhere, and maintained that the grit-bed (No. 2), with its limestone and paper-shales, containing Cypris and Cyren, was really to be regarded as the passage-bed between the Wealden and the Neocomian.-"On the Coprolites of the Upper Greensand Formation, and on Flints," by W. Johnson Sotlas. The first part of this paper was principally occupied in an endeavour to explain the perfect fossilisation of sponges and other soft-bodied animals It was shown that the hypothesis which considered that sponges had become silicified by an attraction of their spicules for silica was altogether untenable. Mr. H. Johnson's supposititious reaction, according to which the carbon of animal matter is directly replaced by silicon, was shown to be inconsistent with the known facts of chemistry. The author's explanation was not intended to be final. The first fact pointed out was the very remarkable way in which the silica or Calcic phosphate of the fossils under consideration followed the former extension of organic matter. This was explained for silica by the fact that, when silicic acid is added to such animal matters as albumen or gelatin, it forms with them a definite chemical compound; and it was assumed that in process of time this highly complex organic substance would decompose, its organic constituents would be evolved, and its silica would remain behind. In such a way flints might be produced, and dialysis would lend its aid. The same explanation was applied to account for the connection between calcic phosphate and animal matter in the case of the "Coprolites." The Blackdown silicified shells were next explained, and it was reasoned that the state of their silica offered arguments tending to prove a passage of silica from the colloidal to the crystalline state. The second part of the paper discussed the Coprolites specially; their exterior appearance is extremely sponge-like, almost exactly resembling some species of modern sponges. They are marked by oscules of peculier characters. The so-called “ 'pores" of paleontologists are well marked. Spicules, triradiate, hexradiate, sinuous, defensive and connecting, have been observed. They are siliceous in composition. On dissolving the coprolites in acid, the spicules are set free, associated with Polycystina (Haliomma hexacantha, &c.) and Xanthidia (N. furcatum). The genera and species of coprolites described were as follows: -Rhabdospongia communis, Bonneyir bacilliformis, B. cylindri cus, B. Jessoni, B. scrobiculatus, B. verrongiformis, Acanthophora Hartogii, Polycantha Etheridgii, Retia simplex, R. costata, Ulospongia patera, U. calyx, U. Brunii. The external appearance of these forms, which constitute a vast number of the coproites, their curious oscules and siliceous spicules, were said to leave no doubt as to ther spongious origin.

Chemical Society, Dec. 19.-Prof. Williamson, F. R.S., vice-president, in the chair.-Analyses of water of the river Mahanuddy, by Mr. G. Nicholson. The author finds that the water of this river contains less dissolved matter than that of any other river in India.-Researches on the polymerides of morphine and their derivatives, by Mr. E. Ludwig Mayer and Dr. C. R. A. Wright; an account of the various derivatives obtained from

morphine by acting on it with zinc chloride, hydrochloric acid, and sulphuric acid respectively, and also of the physiological properties of the compounds produced.-Three communications by Dr. H. E. Armstrong, from the laboratory of the London Institution, were then read. Derivatives of B-dinitrophenol; note on the action of bromine in presence of iodine on trinitrophenol (picric acid); preliminary notice on iodonitrophenols. The last paper, by Mr. C. E. Groves, was on the formation of napthaquinone by the direct oxidation of napthaline, which the author effects by means of chromic anhydride.

It

Anthropological Institute, Dec. 17.-Dr. Charnock, vicepresident, in the chair. A paper was read by Mr. C. referring to various facts showing the existence of serpentStaniland Wake on the origin of serpent-worship. After worship in many different parts of the world, the paper proceeded to consider the several ideas associated with the serpent among ancient and modern peoples. One of its chief characteristics was its power over the wind and rain. in which character it was the Agathodamon. The serpent was Another was its connection with health and good fortune, also the symbol of life or immortality, as well as of wisdom. was then shown that that animal was viewed by many uncultured descent was actually traced by the Mexicans and various other peoples as the re-embodiment of a deceased ancestor, and that Peoples from a serpent. The serpent superstition thus became a phase of ancestor worship, the superior wisdom and power ascribed to the denizens of the invisible world being assigned also to their animal representatives. When the simple idea of a spirit ancestor was transformed into that of the Great Spirit, the father of the race, the attributes of the serpent would be enlarged, and it would be thought to have power over the rain and Being thus transferred to the atmosphere, the serpent would come the hurricane, which provide the moisture requisite for life. the sun was not only a serpent-god, but also the divine ancestor or to be associated with nature, or solar worship. Hence we find that benefactor of mankind. Seth, the traditional ancestor of the Semites, was the serpent-sun-god, the Agathodamon, and facts were cited to establish that the legendary ancestors of the peoples classed together as Adamites was thought to possess the same character. It would appear to follow from this and other facts mentioned in the paper that serpent worship, as a developed religious system, originated in Central Asia, the home of the great Scythic stock from which the civilised races of the historical period sprung, and that the descendants of the legendary founder of that stock, the Adamites, were in a special sense serpent-worshippers.-Major W. H. Godwin-Austin contributed a paper “On the Garo Hill Tribes." The Garos occupy the extreme west point of the range of hills south of the Brahmaputra, and which terminate with the great bend of that river on long. 90° east. kindred tribes of Duars, Kackari, and Kopili; and gave The paper entered into a comparison of the Garos with the detailed descriptions of the physical characteristics, religious rites, manners, and customs, and peculiar dwellings of that people.

VIENNA

The

I. R. Geological Institute, Nov. 19.-The first meeting of the winter season was opened by the director, Fr. v. Hauer, with the report on the progress of the geological survey made during last summer. It was carried on in three different regions in the north-western part of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, including also the dominion of Prince Liechtenstein, on the Carlstadt military frontier, and in the south part of Bukowina. exact investigation of the limestone chain in the first region, by Dr. v. Majsisovics, gave very unexpected results; not only did he discover Suurian (Grauwacke) strata and dyassic strata (Schwatz-limestone and Gröden-sandstone) unknown hitherto in the Rhaticum, but he stated also that the large limestone range of the Drusenflah, Salzflah, and Weisplatten belongs to the cretaceous formation-a very important fact, which changes essentially our ideas as to the geological structure of the curious region which separates the eastern and western Alps. Not less important are the observations of Dr. Stache on the crystalline rocks of the Oetzthal massive. He denies the existence of any more recent and eruptive "Central Gneiss" in this region, and asserts that strata of the so-called rock alternate regularly with mica-schist, amphibolic schists, &c. in the middle part of the massive as well as towards its outer margins. In the southern part of Bukowina, a region very little known till now, Mr. Paul stated that the crystalline schists, forming the basis of a series

of sedimentary formations, are divisible into two members; the lower, consisting chiefly of quartz-slates and quartzites, contains ores of copper and iron; the upper, formed by mica-slates, red gneiss, calcareous and amphibolic slates, includes the so-called black iron ore, and manganese ores of Takobeni and Dorna. The sedimentary rocks are red sandstone, triassic limestone, lower and upper Neocomian, Cenomanian, Nummulitic rocks, and higher up the large masses of Carpathian sandstone. Besides the regular survey, almost all the members of the In-tifute made particular inquiries in different parts of the empire, partly for exclusively scientific purposes, but chiefly for the solution of questions of practical interest. An important discovery was thus made by Dr. Stache; he found in the slates south of the Gaiethal in Carinthia numerous Graptolites, the first certain proof of the existence of Silurian rocks in the southern Alps.

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Dec. 16.-M. Faye, president, in the chair. The president of the Institute informed the Academy that its first general meeting for 1873 would be held on January 8, and wished the Academy to appoint a member to represent it as reader on that occasion.--General de Cissey, Minister of War, announced that his department had decided on the red termination of the French meridian which has at present many errors, as it is advisable that the French section of the great line extending from Shetland to the Sahara should equal in accuracy the English, Spanish, and Algerian portions. Captain Perrier is to have charge of the work, and the Academy is asked to appoint a committee of revision.-The president then read an addition to his physical theory of the sun explaining the nature of the spots He defends his theory against some recent criticisms of Messrs. Spencer and Kirchhoff. He regards the spots as produced by cyclones which form a funnel-shaped cavity in the photosphere. Round the edge of this hole the photosphere and chromosphere are heaped together, and into it masses of cooler atmosphere are drawn by the vortex, and they then exert their absorptive power.-M. Jamin read a note on the distribution of magnetism.-M. Belgrand then read a second note on the floods of the Seine-M. Daubrée read a note on a meteorite which fell near Bandong, Java; the governor of the Dutch Indies had sent a portion to the museum. An analysis has been published in the Archives Néerlandaises of Haarlem, vol. vi. 1871, by Mr. Von. Baumhauer. The meteorite contains iron, nickel, cobalt, chromium, manganese, magnesium, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, oxygen, sulphur, and silicon.-M. Fréd. Kuhlmann then read an account of a search for iodine and bromine in some phosphatic minerals, iodine was distinctly recognised, but brom ne if present was only there in inappreciable quantities.-M. F. Perrier read a note on a new determination of the French meridian.-The Phylloxera Commission presented extracts from two pap r by MM. M+x Cornu and E Duclaux: they also asked permission to present their report at an early date. Notes on the same subject were received from MM. R. Shore and Alderly.-M. de Wissocq presented a paper entitled "A Study of the Works required to prevent the Floods of the Loire.-M. Sacc sent a letter on the preservation of food, which was referred to the commission on that subject.-M. F. Perrier read an answer to a note of M. Lau sedat on the prolongation of the Spanish meridian into Algeria. The answer related partly to questions of priority as concerns the proposed prolongation.-M. F. Lucas presented some observations on a note on mathematical physics, by M. Quet.-M. Gernez sent a note on the supposed action of thin films of liquids on supersaturated solutions. The author asserts that Tomlinson and Van der Mensbrugghe are deceived in their idea that films cause crystallisation. M. Gernez states that this is not caused by a film per se, but by crystalline particles contained in it.-M. A. Trève read a note on magnetism, which was followed by a note by MM. Troost and Hautefeuille on some derivatives of the oxychlorides of silicon. -M. A. Boillot read a note on a new method of preparing ozone by means of carbon. The carbon is employed as the conducting film on the surface of the ozoniser. M. Gérardin presented a note on the amount of oxygen dissolved in rain water and in that of the Seine. Fine and persistent rain contains less oxygen than that of heavy and short showers.-Next came a note from M. Lortet on penetration of leucocytes into the interior of organic membranes.

PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8-Anniversary.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.-The Atlantean Race of Western
Europe: The late J. W Jackson. The Kojahs of Southern India: Dr.
John Shortt-Primordial Inhabitants of Brazil: M. H. Gerber and
Capt. Burton.

SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, at 8 30.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.35 -Contributions to a general History of the
Spongiada (Part IV): Dr. Bowerbank. -Report on a Collection of
Sponges found at Ceylon, by E. W H. Holdsworth: Dr. Bowerbank.-
On the Value in Classification of a peculiarity in the anterior margin of
the Nasal Bones of some Birds: A H. Garrod.
ROYAL INSTITUTION, at 3.-Juvenile Lectures-On Air and Gas: Prof.
Odling.

AS

THURSDAY, JANUARY 9, 1873

DEEP SPRINGS

S our contribution to a controversy which has now been going on for some weeks in the Times, and to which much public attention has been given, we have received Prof. Geikie's permission to print a Lesson from his forthcoming Primer of Physical Geography dealing with the subject of Deep Springs.

The facts which Prof. Geikie here summarises in so admirable a manner, taken in connection with what has already appeared in NATURE as to what one may almost call the cosmical connections of the recent rainfall, and the actual conditions of the case placed before the readers of the Times by Mr. Bailey Denton, should, we think, be enough to convince all that there is a science in these matters, and that the way in which Nature is in the habit of working should be at least understood, if even in only a feeble way, before a protest be entered against her.

Do we wish to continue to avail ourselves of surface springs? If so it must be remembered, first, that these are impossible without the deep springs of which Prof. Geikie speaks; secondly, that it may be roughly said, that they are normally replenished once a year, and that in some parts of England there has not been rain enough this year yet to replenish them. In the words of Mr. Denton :

"During the summer months, from May to October, the rain which falls seldom reaches the depth of a yard. This has been clearly shown by Dickinson's records. During that period evaporation, exceeding the rainfall very considerably, draws upon the subterranean supply of water stored in the soil, and in continued drought the draught is immense. In the winter months, from October to May, when the rainfall exceeds the evaporation, the excess penetrates the earth, and having saturated the subsoil as it passes through it, the surplus descends to the springs or subterranean level to replenish the one and raise the other. To produce this super-saturation requires time, and hence it is that mid-winter-ie. the shortest day is reached before the deep springs and deep waterbeds are augmented."

The present controversy will do lasting good if it induces, and we think it may, accurate observations of the amount of water in the deep springs in different areas in different years, and at different times of the year. It is more than possible that the late heavy rainfall is even, from the deep spring point of view, a manifestation of a higher law-or of a miracle as Mr. Babbage would have called it-that nature may not only replenish our underground cisterns every year, but vary the yearly supply, over a period of eleven years or so.

Professor Geikie's "Lesson" runs as follows:—

"In this lesson we are to follow the course of that part of the rain which sinks below ground. A little attention to the soils and rocks which form the surface of a country is enough to show that they differ greatly from each other in hardness, and in texture or grain. Some are quite loose and porous, others are tough and closegrained. They consequently differ much in the quantity No. 167-VOL. VII.

of water they allow to pass through them. A bed of sand, for example, is pervious, that is, will let water sink through it readily, because the little grains of sand lie loosely together, touching each other only at some points, so as to leave empty spaces between. The water readily finds its way among these empty spaces. In fact, the sand-bed may become a kind of sponge, quite saturated with the water which has filtered down from the surface. A bed of clay, on the other hand, is impervious; it is made up of very small particles fitting closely to each other, and therefore offering resistance to the passage of Wherever such a bed occurs, it hinders the free passage of the water, which, unable to sink through it from above on the way down, or from below on the way up to the surface again, is kept in by the clay, and forced to find another line of escape.

water.

"Sandy or gravelly soils are dry because the rain at once sinks through them; clay soils are wet because they retain the water, and prevent it from freely descending into the earth.

"When water from rain or melted snow sinks below the surface into the soil, or into rock, it does not remain at rest there. If you were to dig a deep hole in the ground you would soon find that the water which lies between the particles would begin to trickle out of the sides of your excavation, and gather into a pool in the bottom. If you baled the water out it would still keep oozing from the sides, and the pool would ere long be filled again. This would show you that the underground water will readily flow into any open channel which it can reach.

"Now the rocks beneath us, besides being in many cases porous in their texture, such as sandstone, are all more or less traversed with cracks-sometimes mere lines, like those of a cracked window-pane, but sometimes wide and open clefts and tunnels. These numerous channels serve as passages for the underground water. Hence, although a rock may be so hard and close-grained that water does not soak through it at all, yet if that rock is plentifully supplied with these cracks, it may allow a large quantity of water to pass through. Limestone, for example, is a very hard rock, through the grains of which water can make but little way; yet it is so full of cracks or 'joints,' as they are called, and these joints are often so wide, that they give passage to a great deal of water.

"In hilly districts, where the surface of the ground has not been brought under the plough, you will notice that many places are marshy and wet, even when the weather has long been dry. The soil everywhere around has perhaps been baked quite hard by the sun; but these places remain still wet in spite of the heat. Whence do they get their water? Plainly not directly from the air; for in that case the rest of the ground would also be damp. They get it not from above, but from below. It is oozing out of the ground; and it is this constant outcome of water from below which keeps the ground wet and marshy. In other places you will observe that the water does not merely soak through the ground, but gives rise to a little runnel of clear water. If you follow such a runnel up to its source, you will see that it comes gushing out of the ground as a Spring.

"Springs are the natural outlets for the underground water. But you ask why should this water have any outlets, and what makes it rise to the surface?

"The subjoined figure (Fig. 1) represents the way in which many rocks lie with regard to each other, and in which you would meet with them if you were to cut a long deep trench or section beneath the surface. They are arranged, as you see, in flat layers or beds. Let us suppose that a is a flat layer of some impervious rock, like clay, and another layer of a porous material, like sand. The rain which falls on the surface of the ground, and sinks through the upper bed,

L

will be arrested by the lower one, and made either to gather there, or find its escape along the surface of that lower bed. If a hollow or valley should have its bottom below the level of the line along which the water flows, springs will gush out along the sides of the valley, as shown at ss in the woodcut. The line of escape may be either, as in this case, the junction between two different kinds of rock, or some of the numerous joints already referred to. Whatever it be, the water cannot help flow

Wells, are actually dug to catch this water. Mines, pits, quarries, and deep excavations of any kind, are usually troubled with it, and need to be kept dry by having it pumped out."

It is a satisfaction to think that, as Science gets more infused into our general education, such a question as the one to which attention is now directed will not be mooted until its scientific bearings are understood; for after all the question of deep springs is only one of the scientific points involved in the controversy.

FIG. 1.-Origin of Surface Springs.

ing onward and downward, as long as there is any passage by which it can find its way; and the rocks underneath are so full of cracks that it has no difficulty in doing so.

"But it must happen that a great deal of the underground water descends far below the level of the valleys, and even below the level of the sea. And yet, though it should descend for several miles, it comes at last to the surface again. To realise clearly how this takes place, let us follow a particular drop of water from the time when it sinks into the earth as rain to the time when, after a long journeying up and down in the bowels of the earth, it once more reaches the surface. It soaks through the soil together with other drops, and joins some feeble

FIG. 2.-Section of part of a district to show the origin of deep-seated Springs. The Numerous joints in the rocks lead the water down into a main channel, by which it re-ascends to the surface as a spring at s.

trickle, or some more ample flow of water, which works its way through crevices and tunnels of the rocks. It sinks in this way to perhaps a depth of several thousand feet until it reaches some rock through which it cannot readily make further way. All this while it has been followed by other drops, coursing after it through its winding passage down to the same barrier at the bottom. The union of all these drops forms an accumulation of water, which is continually pressed by what is descending from the surface. Unable to work its way downward, the pentup water must try to find escape in some other direction. By the pressure from above it is driven through other cracks and passages, winding up and down until at last it comes to the surface again. It breaks out there as a gushing spring (see Physics Primer, Art. 23).

"Thus each of the numerous springs which issue out of the ground is a proof that there is a circulation of water underneath, as well as upon the surface of the land. But besides these natural outlets, other proofs are afforded by the artificial openings made in the earth. Holes, called

SHELLEY'S BIRDS OF EGYPT

A Handbook to the Birds of Egypt. By G. E. Shelley, F.G.S., F.Z.S., &c. I vol. 8vo, with 14 coloured plates. (London: Van Voorst, 1872.)

MANY travellers who go "up the Nile" during the winter months, devote the leisure, which would otherwise hang somewhat heavily on their hands, to making a collection of birds. The boating trip usual on these occasions is, as Captain Shelley observes, admirably adapted for this purpose," as there is much time left on hand while the vessel is delayed by adverse winds; and even at other times progress is frequently not so rapid as to prevent the traveller from keeping pace with the boat, if he chooses to land for the sake of sport, which may generally be obtained on the banks of the river."

To such persons Captain Shelley's volume will! e most acceptable, as there was previously no single work that contained sufficient information to enable them to determine the names of the birds met with on the Nile. Rüppell's "Systematische Uebersicht" gives a complete list of all the species known to occur in Egypt at the time of its publication. But besides being now rather out of date, Rüppell's volume does not include descriptions of most of the common birds, and requires to be supplemented by several other works hardly adapted for a traveller's library. Captain Shelley's handy volume contains a sufficiently full account of all the Egyptian birds hitherto recorded, and is therefore far more convenient for use during a tour up the Nile, though other works will be required on the return home, to enable some of the more closely allied species to be certainly discriminated.

As limits of the "Egyptian district," of which he treats, Captain Shelley takes the Mediterranean on the north, and the second Nile cataract on the south, with the Arabian and Libyan deserts to the east and west. Within this area about 350 species of birds are met with, of each of which a short description is given, together with remarks upon the time of its occurrence, habits, and other peculiarities. The greater number of the birds of Egypt are well-known European forms, but there is a considerable admixture of Oriental and African species. In the latter category we may notice the beautiful little sun-bird, Nectarinia metallica, of which the portrait forms the near Kalabshee in Nubia, where it is tolerably plentiful in frontispiece to the volume. Captain Shelley met with it April, but has "no doubt that it occasionally descends below the first cataract," as he noticed several specimens within twenty miles of Phila. Other tropical forms which