intrude into the Nile district are the yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus arsinoe), the Egyptian Bush-babbler (Crateropus acacia), the Bifasicated Lark (Certhilanda desertorum), and two other species of Bee-eater, besides the Merops apiaster which visits Europe. The most abundant groups among the Passerine birds of Egypt are, perhaps the Larks and the Stonechats, of both of which numerous forms occur along the Nile banks. Nearly all the European Sylviide are likewise found in Egypt, either all the year round, or in winter during their southern migration. The list of birds of prey is also numerous, and many of the eagles and hawks are said to be individually very abundant. In fact, Egypt must be pronounced to be quite a paradise for an ornithologist who wishes to "take it easy," and to collect a number of rare and teresting species without going far from home, or endangering his health in the forests of the tropics.

Whilst allowing Captain Shelley great credit for the general way in which he has performed his task, we must be permitted to point out several "heresies" in his scientific arrangement, which, however, are manifestly owing rather to carelessness than to ignorance. The Andalusian Hempode (Turnix sylvatica) certainly cannot be correctly referred to the Tetraonida-though Captain Shelley might find precedents for such a course-nor the Ibises, Storks, and Cranes to the Charadriidae, for which, on the other hand, no sort of precedent will be found. It is also new to us to see the Rails and Crakes arranged in the order "Anseres" in the same family (!) as the Ducks and Geese, and the Gulls and Terns united to the Pelicans. Here, we suspect, our author must have got into some muddle in "making up his sheets." On the other hand, great praise must be awarded to the illustrations, which are obviously from the facile pencil of Mr. Keulemans, and represent some of the most novel and attractive species. We could only have wished that a map had been added, with all the localities spoken of by the author marked on it. In these days no work referring to geographical zoology can be deemed complete without a map to it.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A Manual of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. By George Fownes, F.R.S. Eleventh edition, revised and corrected by Henry Watts, B.A., F.R.S. (London : J. and A. Churchill, 1873.)

We have received the eleventh edition of Fowne's Manual of Chemistry. The great popularity of this famous chemical text-book has already necessitated the publication of this edition, although the last was only issued in 1868. Since that time great progress has been made in the science, and we must thank Mr. Watts for having made this edition fully equal to the present educational requirements of chemistry. In order to prevent the increase of the present volume beyond the slightly unwieldy size attained by the last, the editor has somewhat shortened the sections of the work relating to physics. This is by no means to be regretted, as admirable manuals on this subject are now within the reach of all.

Another improvement has been effected by the introduction of a chapter giving the most important points of the received theories of chemical combination and the atomic hypothesis. By thus giving the student some idea of the theoretical portions of the science at an early

Elements of Zoology. By A. Wilson. (Edinburgh : Adam and Charles Black.)

VERY high authorities have lately come to the conclusion and the character of this book and of others like it lately published in Edinburgh confirm that conclusionthat it is not desirable to teach the elements of zoology at all. You cannot in a volume of 600 pages, illustrated with 150 woodcuts, really give an adequate account of the animal kingdom. Nothing less extensive than "Cuvier's Regne Animal," or "Bronn's Thierreich " can deal with the subject. The very essence of Zoology lies in a wide survey of forms which cannot possibly be illustrated in a cheap book. A museum, dissecting rooms, microscopes, special monographs, are necessary for the study of Zoology, and it is useless to give a hurried account of the larger groups into which animals are divisible as an introduction to it. We do not want such elements of Zoology taught in schools and junior classes

elements of which the teacher himself has probably no real knowledge from the study of nature-elements which it is clear that Mr. Wilson has put together from his notes of Prof. Allman's course, and from Prof. Huxley's publications-but which he knows but little of from his own observation of nature. What can be taught in place of such elements of Zoology is the ground-work of Biology; and this teaching designed to give a correct appreciation of the phenomena of life-not an exhaustive survey of all the forms and peculiarities of animal life— is a much more practicable thing for educational purposes and extra-university classes. Special types of both animal and vegetable life are taken, which the teacher has himself studied, and which he can place in quantity in the hands of his pupils for like study. Real scientific training is thus promoted, and books which shall help this form of teaching are needed. On the other hand, books like Mr. Wilson's do a great deal of harm. They put zoology altogether out of the category of natural sciences, making it a subject of hearsay, and when written by men who are not themselves actively working zoologists, are simply mechanical epitomes or analyses of other men's work. Moreover, Mr. Wilson does not appear to possess qualifications for writing such an epitome, for he is not acquainted with French and German work.

Not to enter into the specific inaccuracies of this book, we may simply mention that it is not up to the times. It is ten or fifteen years behind its day throughout, the reason of which is obvious when we find that it is an abridgment of works published about fifteen years since. Fifteen years means a great deal in Zoology, the most actively advancing of any science at the present time, since Darwin's theory has stimulated research in it in all directions. There is no recognition in this book of Darwinism, no proper account of the Protozoa; development throughout is inadequately sketched, or in most cases altogether ignored. Geographical distribution might never have been studied during these twenty years.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]

Dr. Bastian's Experiments on the Beginnings of Life In every experimental science it is of great importance that the methods by which leading facts can be best demonstrated, should be as clearly defined and as widely known as possible. This is particularly true as regards physiology, a science of which the experimental basis is as yet imperfect. All experiments by which a certainty can be shown to exist where there was before a doubt, serve as foundation stones. It is well worth while taking some pains to lay them properly.

Your readers are aware that Dr. Bastian, in his work on the Beginnings of Life, has asserted that in certain infusions the "lower organisms" come into existence under conditions which have been generally admitted to exclude the possibility of the pre-existence of living germs. It is also well known that these experimental results are disputed.

Not long ago I witnessed the opening of a number of experimental flasks charged many months ago by a friend of mine with infusions supposed to be similar to those recommended by Dr. Bastian. The flasks had been boiled and closed hermetically according to Dr. Bastian's method. Finding on careful microscopical examination that the contents of the flasks contained no living organisms, I charged calcined tubes with the liquids, sealed them hermetically, and forwarded them to Dr. Bastian. When I next saw him he pointed out that two of the three liquids used were not those which he had recommended, that if the infusions had been properly prepared, there would not have been any necessity for keeping them many months before examination, that his results with organic infusions were obtained after a few days, and that they were generally of a most unmistakeable nature. To satisfy my doubts on the subject he most kindly offered to repeat his experiments relating to the production of living organisms in infusions of hay and turnip in my presence. To this proposal (although I have hitherto taken no part in the controversy relating to spontaneous generation, and do not intend to take any) I gladly acceded, at the same time engaging to publish the results without delay.

Fifteen experiments were made. They were in three series, the dates of which were respectively, Dec. 14, Dec. 20, and Dec. 27.

FIRST SERIES-(Dec. 14th.)

Two infusions were employed, an infusion of turnip, in making which both the rind and the central part were used, and an infusion of hay. Both had been prepared the same day a short time before they were used:

The turnip infusion, of which the specific gravity was 1012, and the reaction distinctly acid, was divided into two parts, of which one was neutralised with liquor potassæ. Four retorts, each capable of holding, when half full, a little over an ounce of liquid, having been prepared, two were charged with neutral infusion, the other two with unneutralised infusion. A small quantity of pounded cheese was then added to one of each pair. A fifth retort was charged with unneutralised infusion diluted with its bulk of water. As soon as each retort was charged, the

open end of its beak was heated in the blowpipe flame and drawn out. The drawn-out part was then severed, and the retort boiled over a Bunsen's burner, after which it was kept in a state of active ebullition for five minutes. During the boiling, some of the liquid was frequently ejected from the almost capilAt the end of the period named it was closed by the blowpipe flame, care being taken to continue the ebullition to the last. The success of the operation was ascertained in each instance by observing that, by wetting the upper part of the retort, the ebullition was renewed.

Three similar retorts were charged with the hay infusion, the specific gravity of which was 1005, and the reaction neutral. Ot

these, one contained the infusion diluted with its bulk of distilled water, the others being charged with infusion to which no addition had been made. These three retorts were closed, after boiling, in exactly the same way as those containing turnip infusion. The eight retorts were placed, immediately after their preparation, in a water-bath, which was kept at a temperature of about 30° C.

We met to examine the flasks on December 17, just three days after their preparation, Dr. Bastian having previously expressed his anticipation that the infusions of turnip with cheese, whether neutralised or not, would be found by that time to contain multitudes of Bacteria, and that the other two undiluted turnip infusions would exhibit obvious changes. In the hay infusions, he expected that the process would not advance so rapidly; the diluted infusions, he thought, would remain permanently unaltered. The results in each case were as follows:

(a.) Neutral turnip infusion with cheese.-On the 16th I observed that the liquid had become turbid; on the 17th the tur bidity was very obvious. Before opening the retort it was ascertained that when the blow-pipe flame was directed against the tube the heated part was drawn inwards, and further, that when the retort was inclined with its bulb upwards, so as to allow the liquid to rush against the closed end, a characteristic water hammer sound was produced. On breaking the point, air

rushed in with a tolerably loud sound; the liquid was crowded with moderately sized Bacteria, which exhibited active progressive movements. There were also Leptothrix filaments.

(b.) Unneutralised turnip infusion with cheese.-On the 17th, the retort having been tested in the same way as before with similar results, was opened. It contained no living forms.

(c.) Neutral turnip infusion without cheese.-On the 17th this liquid exhibited no marked change. It was finally examined on the 31st, and found to be still unaltered.

(d.) Unneutralised turnip infusion without cheese.-Up to December 31 no change had taken place in this infusion.

(e.) Undiluted hay infusion.-The infusion was slightly turbid on the 17th; on the 20th the turbidity was more marked, and before the flask was opened, the water-hammer sound and other evidence showed that it was entire. The liquid was found to be full of minute but very active Bacteria, and contained numerous colonies of spheroids undergoing transformation into Bacteria. There were also Leptothrix filaments.

(f.) The same.-This infusion was examined on the same day. It had become turbid at about the same time as the last infusion, though to a less extent. It was distinctly acid. A drop of this fluid contained few Bacteria as compared with e.

(g.) Diluted hay infusion.-On the 20th it was discovered that the retort was accidentally cracked. The liquid was swarming with Bacteria, and possessed an offensive smell. On account of the crack, Dr. Bastian regarded the experiment as futile. (h.) Diluted turnip infusion.-This liquid remained changed.

SECOND SERIES-(Dec. 20th.)

un

The purpose of this series was to ascertain whether the irregularities of the results with the turnip infusions in the first

series, as compared with Dr. Bastian's already recorded results, were due to the fact that the material used consisted partly of rind. Dr. Bastian thought that this might be the case, and accordingly another infusion was prepared in which no rind was em ployed. As before, the fresh acid infusion of turnip was divided into two parts, one of which was neutralised by liquor potassæ. Of four retorts, three were charged with unneutralised liquid, the fourth with neutral. Of the three, two were treated with cheese; to the third no addition was made. They were prepared in every respect as before. each case the drawing-in of the glass in the blowpipe flame was again noticed before the neck of the retort was broken.

In

(a.) Unneutralised infusion with cheese.-This infusion showed onilescence, even after twenty-four hours. On the 23rd it had become decide tly turbid, and was opened. The liquid was foetid, and its reaction acid. It swarmed with Bacteria.

(b.) The same. The retort was opened on the 31st, its contents having shown a slight turbidity for several days previously. The liquid was slightly foetid, and it contained characteristic

Bacteria, which, however, were few in number.

(c) Neutral infusion without cheese. The retort was opened on Dec. 31, the fluid having been slightly turbid for several days. The liquid was acid, and slightly foetid, but still retained the odour of turnip. A drop contained a few Bacteria, about 0'003 mm. in length, which exhibited oscillatory movements. (d.) Unneutralised infusion without cheese. -The liquid contained a white mass which lay at the bottom, and was so tenacious that it could be drawn out into strings with needles. This consisted entirely of Bacteria and Leptothrix, embedded in a hyaline matrix. There were also Bacteria in the liquid.

THIRD SERIES-(Dec 27th.)

It appeared to me desirable to ascertain whether the condition of the internal surface of the glass vessels exercised any influence on the result. I therefore heated two retorts to 250° C., keeping them at that temperature for half an hour, and closed them while hot in the blow-pipe flame. These Dr. Bastian charged by breaking off their points under the surface of a neutral infusion of turnip with cheese, freshly prepared for the purpose, without employing any of the rind. The retorts were boiled and sealed in the same way as before, excepting that whereas one was boiled only five minutes the other was boiled ten minutes. The specific gravity of the infusion used was 1013. A third uncalcined retort was charged with some of the same infusion containing no cheese. This was also boiled for ten minutes.

I was out of town from the 28th to the 30th, and therefore did not examine the retorts until the 31st. Dr. Bastian informed me that on the 28 h, twenty-one hours after preparation, the liquids in both the calcined retorts were distinctly turbid, the tempera. ture of the water bath being 32° C. and that sixty-six hours after preparation, whilst the turbidity was much more marked, each flask also contained what appeared to be a "pellicle," which had formed and sunk. At this period the fluid in the third flask had also become very decidedly turbid.

(a.) Neutral turnip infusion with cheese in calcined retort, boiled ten minutes.-The retort having been tested in the way previously described, was opened on the 31st. The liquid was very fœtid, had an acid reaction, and contained much scum. It was found to be full of Bacteria, whilst Leptothrix existed'in abundance in portions of the scum, together with granules of various sizes which refracted light strongly.

(b.) The same boiled five minutes.-The state of the liquid was the same as that just described.

(c.) Neutral infusion without cheese, boiled ten minutes-retort not calcined.—In this liquid the rods and filaments were much less numerous. In other respects its characters were the same.

In each case before opening the retort it was again observed

that a portion of its neck became drawn in when exposed to the blow-pipe flame.

As regards the results of the foregoing experiments, it is unnecessary for me to say anything as to their bearing on the quesdiscussed in your columns. tion of heterogenesis. The subject has already been frequently

The accuracy of Dr. Bastian's statements of fact, with reference to the particular experiments now under consideration, has been publicly questioned. I myself doubted it, and expressed my doubts, if not publicly, at least in conversation. I am content to have established-at all events to my own satisfaction-that, by following Dr. Bastian's directions, infusions can be prepared which are not deprived, by an ebullition of from five to ten minutes, of the faculty of undergoing those chemical changes which are characterised by the presence of swarms of Bacteria, and that the development of these organisms can proceed with the greatest activity in hermetically-sealed glass vessels, from which almost the whole of the air has been expelled University College, Jan. 1

by boiling.

J. BURDON SANDERSON

The Recent Star-shower at Sea

IN case no other account should reach you of a meteoric shower witnessed by the officers and military passengers of H. M. troopship Tamar on the night of Wednesday, November 27, 1872, I send notes collected from several accounts.

The vessel was at the time about 7o south and 4° west of the Bermudas, in longitude 68° 50′ W., latitude 25° 30' N. Between 8 and 10 P.M. by one witness, between 10 and 12 P.M. by another, that is, between 12h. and 16h. Greenwich mean time, there was a nearly uninterrupted succession of shooting stars-from all parts of the sky, says one, from about E.N.E. to W.S. W., says another. The gentleman who gives the earlier hour estimates their number as from 25 to 50 per minute; the gentleman who gives the later at about 3 in 2 minutes. They were not counted or accurately observed by any one, but this discrepancy perhaps justifies the belief that the thickest part of the stream was passed through by the earth at the earlier hour. Sunset would have been soon after 5; thus it was dark with no moon before the earliest hour named.

I cannot learn that they were seen in Bermuda; but the weather was cloudy. J. H. L.

Bermuda, Dec. 17, 1872

Curious Auroral Phenomenon

ON the nights of the 4th and 5th of this month a curious phenomenon, presenting much resemblance to an aurora borealis, was noticed here.

It had the character of a faint, steady light, rather red than yellow, extending over the horizon, which here in that direction is bounded by the sea-line, from N. W. to N. N. E.; while underneath it, that is between it and the horizon, was a rim of dark, smoke-like appearance, such as I have more than once seen in undoubted auroras. The smoky line occupied to a height of about three degrees above the horizon; the light to ten or twelve at most. On both nights it became visible about 9 P. M., and disappeared shortly after II P.M.

My house being situated rather more than 300 ft. above the sea and commanding a perfectly open view over it, I had a good opportunity of noticing this appearance: which was also observed and commented on by several other inhabitants of the town. On the night of the 6th I thought I could distinguish something of the kind, but the increasing light of the moon and a sea-fog coming on, rendered the fact uncertain.

The barometer was high, 30° 20", the wind slight and from the east, the weather cool.

It may be worth adding that the water of the Black Sea being but slightly salt, its phosphorescent phenomena are proportionally insignificant. Hence I do not think that the light in question could have been any way reflected from the sea-surface. No electrometer or instrument of the kind exists at Trebizond, but the uncomfortable sensations of which many people complained, and, I may add, the abundant sparks from my Tom's back-Í ruffled it by way of trial on purpose-seemed to imply