PHYSOSTIGMA AND ATROPIA*

IN N this remarkable memoir, Dr. Fraser has shown how problems in experimental therapeutics may be treated with a kind of exactness which has hitherto been confined to purely physical inquiries.

That an antagonism exists between the physiological action of atropia and that of the Calabar bean had been strongly indicated by Kleinwächter and by Bourneville.† Dr. Fraser has not only confirmed this, but has, by means of a series of nearly 500 experiments, traced the character and extent of this antagonism. As the object of this communication is not to give an account of the matter of Dr. Fraser's paper, but to explain shortly its method, we refer the reader interested in therapeutics to the paper itself for details.

The experiments were performed on rabbits, of as nearly as possible uniform weight (about 3 lbs.) and con

dition. The doses of the two poisons were administered in the form of aqueous solutions, by subcutaneous injection.

It will be at once seen that, if we assume all the rabbits to have been of the same size, age, and general condition,” there are three quantities by change of which the conditions of experiment may be varied. These are (1) the dose of physostigma; (2) the dose of atropia ; and (3) the interval of time between the administration of the two doses. In the tabular summary of experiments, Dr. Fraser has noted in each experiment the effect on the pupils, on the heart's action, on the respiration, on secretion and excretion, and on the action of the voluntary muscles. We shall, however, in this notice confine ourselves to the general result, viz., recovery or death.

After proving, by means of upwards of 50 experiments, that the administration of small quantities of sulphate of atropia enables an animal to recover after a dose of ex

The dose of extract of Calabar bean (or of sulphate of physostigma) in units of 12 grain of extract, or o 12 grain of sulphate of physostigma, per 3 lbs. of rabbit.†

y = Interval of time in minutes between the administration of the two substances, taken positive when the atropia, negative when the physostigma is administered first.

In the first series, y = 5; in the second, y=-5; and in larger one, the doses were, for the purposes of comparison, multiplied by the * As a given dose of poison affects a small animal more than it does a

3

factor weight of rabbit in pounds; thus reducing them to the doses which would have produced the same effect on a rabbit weighing 3 lbs. This is almost certainly not a perfect mode of correcting for difference of weight; but as the correction is always small-the animals being selected of as near 3 lbs. weight as possible-it may be assumed to be practically sufficient. This unit was chosen by Dr. Fraser as being the minimum dose producing death when no atropia was administered.

both x and z are varied, so as to obtain the limit which separates conditions leading to recovery from conditions leading to death.

In the third series, 2 is constant = 15 (that is, a dose one-half greater than that which would produce death if no atropia were administered); and x and y are varied, so as to obtain sets of limiting conditions.

If the three variables, x, y, z, be expressed by means of a system of three rectangular co-ordinates, the conditions of each experiment will be represented by a point; and the points representing experiments resulting in recovery will be separated from those representing experiments resulting in death, by a surface passing through the points representing sets of limiting conditions.

The three series of experiments make us acquainted with three lines on this surface, viz., the intersections of the surface and the three planes, the equations of which are, y = 5,y=-5, and z = 1'5.

Some further knowledge of the character of the surface may be obtained from a consideration of the general conditions. Thus, when no atropia is administered, the limiting value of is obviously the minimum fatal dose of physostigma; that is, xo, z= I. In the same way, when z = 0, x = 2= the minimum fatal dose of sulphate of atropia for a 3lb. rabbit, about 21 grains, or 2 = 0,

x = 21.

=

Again, there must be a limiting value of y; that is, an interval of time so great as to prevent the two poisons acting simultaneously, the animal having either died or completely recovered from the effects of the first substance before the time for the administration of the second has arrived. When y exceeds this value, the surface must consist of two planes, the equations of which are, * = 21 and z = I.

This limiting value is of course not necessarily the same on the positive and on the negative side; and, in fact, Dr. Fraser's experiments show that it lies very much nearer to the plane y = o on the negative than on the positive side. Beyond these values of y, the surface consists of two plane sheets meeting in a rectangular edge. Each of these sheets separates points representing conditions under which recovery takes place from conditions leading to death; but in the case of the sheet z = 1 the space on the one side represents recovery and on the other side death caused by physostigma; while in the case of the sheet 21 the space on the one side represents recovery and on the other side death caused by atropia.

If we look closely at the portion of the surface lying between these limiting values of y, we shall see that here, also, the surface consists of two sheets; in the one dz

dx is positive, in the other negative; in the one a small increase of the dose of atropia tends to recovery, in the other to death; the one runs continuously into the plane = 1, the other into the plane = 21. These two sheets meet in an edge, which is particularly well seen in the sections by the planes y = 5 and y = - 5. (The various lines above mentioned are represented, in orthogonal projections, in the accompanying woodcut.) There can be no doubt that this edge is continuous with the rectangular edges between the plane sheets before mentioned. The conditions represented by points situated on this edge are such that increase of the dose of either substance will produce a fatal result, and that either increase or diminution of the dose of atropia will produce a fatal result.

This paper appears to us specially worthy of attentive consideration, as the first systematic investigation of the combined action of two poisons, and also on account of the method employed in arranging the results of the investigation; a method of which we have given a sketch in this notice, and which seems certain to lead to increased accuracy of observation, by giving the means of greater definiteness in the statement and classification of results.

NOTES

THE Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science have this week examined the Marquis of Salisbury and Sir Stafford Northcote.

THE Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society will be held on Saturday next.

AT the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society held on Monday night, the President stated that Mr. Young, the firm friend of Dr. Livingstone, to whom we recently referred, had sent him a cheque for 2,000l. to help to defray the expenses of the Livingstone Congo Expedition, which, under the command of Africa, is expected to start for Africa during the course of the of Lieut. Grundy, who is well acquainted with the West Coast present week. Government, we are glad to say, has given the expedition all the assistance in its power, furnishing letters to its officers on the West Coast of Africa, for the purpose of pr curing the expedition all possible facilities. The War Ofot has made a present to the members of the expedition of the necessary arms, while the African Steamship Company has very kindly given to the officers passages at half the usual pr Lieut. Grundy thus starts under very favourable auspices. Str Bartle Frere, the leader of the anti-slavery expedition from the opposite coast, left England last Thursday, and is expected to react Brindisi in the course of a few days, where he will be joined by Lieut. Cameron and his party, who are just about to leav England. The party will then proceed, on board the Enchaatria, through the canal to Zanzibar, where Sir Bartle Frere will gre his final instructions to those gentlemen who are to form the ci pedition. The president, Sir Henry Rawlinson, places even confidence in Lieut. Cameron, and in the zeal of the officers whom he is accompanied; he is determined to avail himself every possible opening to penetrate into the interior of A2, for his own credit, for the advantage of science, and for th purpose of aiding and relieving Livingstone.

THE Khedive of Egypt is also about to send a force compris 5,000 men, under Purdy Bey (one of his American officers) Zanzibar in transports. The ostensible object of the expedita is to go into the country which it is supposed that Livingstone may be exploring, and to co-operate with him, if it be age able to him; but if he declines assistance, the expedition wo undertake on its own account a search for the sources of the Nile, where, if discovered, the Egyptian flagwould be planet.

THE scientific news which comes to us every other week ims France is refreshing and hopeful. There has been founded: Bordeaux a scientific association embracing the whole of south-west of France, especially the Gironde and neighbours departments. It is connected with the French Scientific Ass tion, preserving, however, its autonomy and special organisas its title being " Groupe Girondin" of the French Association the Advancement of Science. Its seat is at Bordeaux, and, scientific purposes, it is divided into four sections, each se corresponding to one or more sections of the French Association They are-1. Section of the Mathematical Sciences; 2. Phy and Natural Sciences; 3. Medical Sciences; 4 Moral Social Sciences. Each section meets monthly at Bordeaux first in the first week of the month, the second in the sec week, and so on. The work of the sections consists of lect exhibitions, and scientific discussions on the subjects proper each section. This provincial association intends to publish intervals such papers as are likely to be of general interest encourage scientific researches by pecuniary help; and to g prizes for the best memoirs on subjects to be proposed by Most heartily do we wish the society success.

SIR JOHN BOWRING, whose death took place on Satur last, at the age of eighty, was better known to the public a

world of politics than of science. In the latter, however, he filled a by no means unimportant position, as one of the most strenuous advocates of an international decimal system of weights and measures, and as an old and and very regular attender of the meetings of the British Association, where he devoted himself chiefly to the Section of Economical Science.

It is expected that Sir William Jenner will be the President of the Pathological Society for the ensuing year.

THE Master and Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, have recently determined to appoint a prælector in chemistry to superintend the laboratory, and to have charge of :.the chemical studies of the students at the college. The stipend will be 200/. a year, and the prælector will have the status of a Fellow of the college. The election will take place about the middle of next month.

AT a meeting of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of Mauritius, held on September 25, it was resolved that, like other scientific societies which have met in London the Society should convey to Dr. Hooker the feelings of regret and sympathy with which they have learned that differences had arisen between him as Director of the Botanical Gardens at Kew, and the First Commissioner of Public Works. It is the earnest hope of the Royal Society that Dr. Hooker, whom the Society has the honour to include among its members, as it did for many years his illustrious father, will succeed in maintaining himself with honour in = the Directorship to which he has been raised by his merit and extensive knowledge, and which he has held with such distinction to himself and advantage to the public.

THE Civil Service Commissioners have announced that on December 31 they will hold an open competitive examination for the appointment of clerk to the Curator of Kew Gardens. Candidates must be between the ages of twenty and thirty, and must be familiar with the routine duties of the garden, and competent to direct the foremen in matters relating to their accounts. On the same day the Civil Service Commissioners will hold an examination for the appointment of second assistant in the Herbarium at Kew, for which persons between eighteen and thirty who are skilled in practical botany will be eligible to compete. In each case the Commissioners will apply to Dr. Hooker for a report on the technical qualifications of the candidates.

THE Times of India speaks of a rumour that the Government intends to abolish the Deccan College, or rather to amalgamate it with Elphinstone College. By this plan, Government pretends to think, higher education would be advanced in India. But the Mora Prakash, an Indian paper quoted by the Times of India, says the end would be much more effectually accomplished by appointing to both colleges a greater number and more efficient teachers than has generally been the case hitherto. For the two colleges there are thirteen professors; but Elphinstone College is allowed two Professors of Mathematics, while the Deccan College has none, and no Professors of History and Political Economy. We hope the threat is a mere bait to ascertain public opinion. Intelligent public opinion, we believe, would certainly condemn the step, and urge Government to make the teaching staff more numerous and effective.

A CORRESPONDENT writes to the Atheneum :-"The question of admission of women to medical degrees in Edinburgh University has been rather unexpectedly solved, at least for the present. Miss Jex Blake, a foremost champion of the movement, has actually been plucked in her examinations, and sent back to complete her scientific studies." Many people will be quite unable to see that this by no means surprising accident affects in any way the great question of the unrestricted admission of women to the privileges of university teaching.

We are delighted to notice that the Liverpool Daily Post has for some time past been devoting about a column to science,

giving, besides notifications of the meetings of the numerous learned societies in and around Liverpool, a selection of scientific notes from this and other journals. We cannot give too great praise for the step taken by this paper in the right direction, and we only wish that all other provincial, as well as metropolitan, papers would follow the example, and give the latest news of a power which a distinguished Frenchman recently declared would soon become the ruler of the world.

IN a recent speech by the Rev. Mr. Tuckwell, he made some pertinent remarks on the Future of University Local Examinations. After referring with all due praise to the "Regulations of Oxford and Cambridge," he was yet compelled to say that without most serious modifications, the machinery of these examinations will be insufficient to meet the demand of the time which is surely coming, when compulsory universal public They show deficiency in four vital points. "They are adexaminations will be imposed upon all the English schools. ministered by the older universities exclusively; but within the last forty years a race of teachers has grown up, who owe to an institution young yet already famous those feelings of loyalty and affection which some of us associate with the more venerable names of Oxford and Cambridge; and these men will give in their adhesion to no University examining body in which the London University remains unrepresented. They are costly to individual candidates: yet surely, from the wealth of the Universities and from the large educational endowments now in the hands of the School Commissioners, it would be possible to find funds for the extinction or the diminution of this tax. They unwisely limit subjects. Five optional subjects are permitted to junior candidates, of which Scripture must be one. They take up Scripture then because they must; Greek, Latin, and Mathematics, because these are supposed to gain higher marks than anything else, and are the leading subjects in their school work; there remains the choice between modern languages and science; nine boys out of ten, under the pressure of parents or teachers, take up French, and thus a severe though unintended blow is dealt at physical science. Lastly, they are in no sense compulsory; and the temptation to an unscrupulous master to pick out a clever boy, and work him exclusively for high distinction, while he starves the rank and file, is too obvious to need further notice. When these four blots are wiped away; when the three Universities combine to hold one great examination once a year; when the fees are lessened or abolished; when free trade in subjects is set up; and when all boys in every school above a certain age are compelled to undergo the ordeal then, indeed, and not till then, we shall see such a system of examinations, so perfect in theory, so priceless in its effect upon school-teaching, as for the present we must be contented to behold only in our dreams."

;

AN astronomical and meteorological observatory is about to be erected by the Russian Government at Tashkend, in Central Asia, about 100 miles north-west of Khokan.

THE fossil man discovered at Mentone is at present being exhibited at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

MR. W. F. DENNING, of Bristol, noticed on Saturday evening last a meteor of considerable brilliancy. It radiated from a place at the extreme north-west part of Andromeda, passing through the sword-hand of Perseus, and onwards through Camelopardalus, becoming extinct, as if burnt out, on reaching the head of Ursa Major. In its flight the meteor faded several times and revived again with great rapidity. It did not leave any train of light marking the path it had traversed, though it emitted a spark in its course. In reference to its brightness Mr. Denning says that it excelled Venus when at her maximum degree of brilliancy.

PROF. PIAZZI SMYTH, writing to the Athenæum, says that the finest specimen of one of the "casing stones" of the Great

Pyramid known at present to exist either in Europe, or even in Egypt, was received last week in Edinburgh from Mr. Waynman Dixon, a young engineer who has recently completed an iron bridge across the Nile between Cairo and Jeezeh. The

specimen possesses, Prof. Smyth says, in a more or less injured

condition, five of the anciently-worked sides of the block, including the upper and lower horizontal surfaces, together with the levelled surface between. It was the exact angle of this levelled slope which led the late Mr. John Taylor to what Prof. Smyth calls "the immortal archæological truth, that the shape of the entire monument was carefully so adjusted and exactly fashioned in its own day to precisely such a figure that it does set forth the value of the mathematical term, or does, vulgarly, demonstrate in the right way the true and practical squaring of the circle." Whether this be the case or no, Prof. Smyth declares that the length of the front foot of the stone, or that line or edge from which the angular slope of the whole stone commences to rise, measures, "within the limit of mensuration error now unavoidable, the number of just twenty-five pyramid inches, neither less nor more. And twenty-five pyramid inches have been shown to be the ten-millionth part of the length of the earth's semi-axis of rotation." Prof. Smyth is very severe on the Egyptologists of the British Museum for the manner in which they conduct their department.

THE Athenæum informs us that the first volume of a Russian translation of Mr. E. B. Tylor's "Primitive Culture" has appeared at St. Petersburg. The German version of the same work is also announced as being just about to appear; and a French translation of Mr. Tylor's "Early History of Mankind," with notes by the translator, M. Emile Cartailhac, and by M. Quatrefages, is stated to be in preparation.

CONCLUSIVE Proof has been obtained by a correspondent to Notes and Queries, that the treatise "On Probability" is not by De Morgan, but by the late Sir John William Lubbock, On inquiry at the Museum, the little slip of paper containing the original title was produced, and which gives the authorship to Sir J. W. Lubbock. On the back of the slip was inscribed the note—“ Information from Prof. De Morgan, Dec. 62."

WE see from the Times of India, that Mr. Griffiths, of the Bombay School of Art, with a few of his students, intends, about the end of December, to go to the remarkable caves of Elephanta, to copy the very beautiful painted decorations which still cling to the walls, in spite of damp, neglect, bats, and the relentless teeth of time. These caves are on a small island in the harbour of Bombay, about seven miles S. W. of the city, and contain some very interesting Indian antiquities. They get their name from the gigantic figure of an elephant which formerly stood near the shore, but has now fallen to decay.

A CORRESPONDENT, Mr. W. B. Shorte, writes under date

Nov. 4, from on board the steamship Tanjore, Bombay, giving

us a few notes on the occultation of Venus, which he witnessed on the evening of Nov. 5. A small telescope with a magnifying power of about 100, and a pair of good binoculars, were the instruments employed. The planet shone with such lustre that it was clearly seen by the naked eye even before sunset, and after sunset appeared for some time as if resting on the upper part of the dark limb of the moon. In a few minutes a very gradual diminution of the planet's light was noticed, and as the occultation proceeded a singular phenomenon was observed, namely, the apparent position of Venus within the moon's circumference, the planet actually appearing for some time as if situated upon the disc of the satellite, though much diminished in size, and shining as a minute point of light. This continued until the moment of complete occultation, the Bombay time of which was 5h. 46m. 475. The re-appearance on the illuminated edge occurred at 6h. 26m. 32s., so that the planet was invisible for 39m. 46s.

I

THE ORGANISATION OF ACADEMICAL STUDY IN ENGLAND

connection with the question of the best application of the

endowments of Oxford and Cambridge, a public meeting was held at the Freemason's Tavern, on Saturday Nov. 16 by members of the Universities and others interested in the promotion of mature study and scientific research in England. The meeting was called in response to a preliminary resolution to the effect that "the chief end to be kept in view in any redis tribution of the revenues of Oxford and Cambridge is the adequate maintenance of mature study and scientific research, as well it their own sakes as with the view of bringing the highest ed. cation within reach of all who are desirous to profit by it." The Rev. Mark Pattison occupied the chair. He explained that gentlemen present were no: the representatives political party or political movement, but were there simply for an academical purpose. Neither were they to be considered a having met to take an initiative: the initiative had already been taken by Mr. Gladstone in appointing a commission to inquire into the revenues of the colleges and universities. They were only there to discuss the direction which, in their opinion, ought to be taken by any reform, initiated, not by themselves, but by other people.

Professor Rolleston, who was the first speaker, commenced by remarking that until the end of the last century, it would be 36mitted that the Universities were neither seats of learning n seats of teaching. The first thing that was done was to mak them seats of examination; and, as far as that is concerned, they work tolerably well at this moment. The great danger is the they should be made simply into that utilitarian sort of mache —a machine for examining and a machine for teaching. The speaker by no means wished that their capabilities in the way of examining and that kind of work should be curtailed. S he thought it of very vital consequence, in this somewit utilitarian age, to make the Universities into places whe original research, and where the production of fresh facts and means of knowledge, instead of the mere communication as reproduction of it, should be recognised. One result of present examination system is that men who, as grown men 20 during the whole of their university career, are subjected to the ordeal of examination in futuro, do not look at what they have under study as so much truth, but look upon it as something be reproduced on paper, and to further their designs on Fellow ships and Scholarships, and other pecuniary rewards. No when a man is kept for something like twenty-three or twenty four years of his life under that sort of training, he gets apt to look at all work whatever of the intellectual kind, from the point of view of the examination merely. Men get demoral by the process. They do not look at the truth for itself. The have no notion of shovelling forward the elements of knowle into some area into which nothing has been before. Tha entirely a new vein to them: and he thought one of the r things requisite was that examinations should be considers rather more the work of boys, and of people just emerging o of boyhood, than that they should be prolonged into a sort struggle for men who have got to man's estate. We have then to consider :-how is it possible for us to encour it is one which can only be shared by a larger number?-Hor that which we feel is an advantage of a greater kind, altho it possible to encourage original research without sacrific soundness of learning in the many? How can we enoug the few to research without at the same time sacrificing the grea advantages which we do get for the whole public, by passing great number of mediocre men through the mill which d make them useful machines for doing work in this country e ours? There is a very serious objection which may be urged "But how do you propose to encourage original resear Original research is a work of genius-you cannot fetter ge by law-you cannot tie a man who has this gift of orga research by rules and laws. You cannot give him delin duties to perform, within a definite time; and then you are e this dilemma: a man has nothing given him to do he not then do nothing?" That is a very common si among people who have got effectually case-hardened by look at things in a schoolmaster's point of view. A man who hu nothing to do, they tell you, will do nothing. Now he bel people for what they do and show under that particular orde by using the system of examination judiciously, by rewari and then by giving them something or another which does kee

them, so to speak, from beggary for the time being, it is pos sible then, by a well-adjusted system, to keep their minds open to original research. But we know that funds must be found for it. A man cannot prosecute research unless he has got something to find him bread for the passing moment. Although he thought we should be entirely wanting in our duties if we laid aside the examination system, which has rescued the universities from the slough of idleness in which they were eighty or ninety years ago, yet, he said, we neglect our duty even more by neglecting the encouragement of men who have the capacity for original investigation and research. Again, a man who has not some notion of what original research means, is not fit to be a teacher at all. He would go even further, and say, if a man has the gift of original research, even if he entirely lack the power of communicating, and, what is another thing, the taste for communicating knowledge, he ought to have a place found for him. A man of that kind is like a light shining all around; setting by his example and his work a higher tone to society, a man who has the power of going into some new sphere. so that he may say to those whom he is teaching:-We are the first who ever burst into that silent sea.

Dr. Carpenter then spoke of the different system pursued by the German universities to that which prevails in our own.

Dr. Burdon Sanderson continued on the desirableness of fostering at the universities a class of what in Germany is called the Gelehrter, that is, said Dr. Sanderson, a man who not only possesses as adequate a knowledge as other men do of subjects in general, but has made a perfect study of some particular subject. The speaker then dwelt on the study of physical science, and of physiology in particular, as it should be con ceived at an university.

The resolution "That to have a class of men whose lives are devoted to research is a national object" was then carried.

Sir Benjamin Brodie said that he had the strongest opinion that when the report of Mr. Gladstone's commission is published, and the true revenues of the colleges of Oxford are made known to the House of Commons and the world, the greatest surprise, and he might also say, the greatest indignation will prevail. He admitted fully that a great amount of good educational work is done by the Universities, but certainly thought that the work is totally disproportionate in every way to the machinery which exists for its performance, and it is idle and useless to say that we want an expensive collegiate system-a system of colleges manipulating actual revenues of thousands of pounds a year for the purpose of educating, however admirably, 2,000 students who, we may also say, absolutely pay for their education besides. When those statements are made, as they will be made, as to the property of the Universities and the Colleges, there will be the greatest danger that we may have a reform which perhaps none of us wish for a reform which may be no improvement at all, but which may simply consist in the alienation from the purposes of knowledge of these great funds. Now with regard to the promotion of knowledge in various branches, this great object was entirely lost sight of by the Executive Commission in 1854. He believed that most persons in Oxford who are interested in real education, are not very well satisfied with the fruits of this Commission. The few things that they did in regard to the promotion of knowledge were done partly with that view, and partly under the pretext of reviving old foundations, such as the Linnæan professorship at Merton College, and four professorships at Magdalen College, and two or three other small institutions which the University had long ago buried under ground. The Commission dug these up, and therefore so far did something for the promotion of science. And indeed it is impossible, unless you absolutely destroy Oxford and Cambridge, to get rid of every record of the idea that those universities are founded for the promotion, and not solely for the diffusion, of knowledge; for that idea really runs through the whole university system. The great libraries of Oxford and Cambridge, and also the great collegiate foundations, bear witness to it. Now we wish to take up this thread where our predecessors dropped it, namely, this idea that the universities are institutions, not only for diffusing knowledge and education, but for absolutely promoting knowledge and investigation. However, a much more important object than that is the real welfare of the nation, as that welfare of the nation may be promoted by the growth of science and knowledge. With regard to scientific research, men are really hindered from investigation on all sides from the want of means of subsistence, and means of work. Certain aids are afforded to the investigators of science by existing institutions, by the Learned

Societies of England and the Continent; and we have also two or three national institutions which certainly on such an occasion as the present ought by no means to be forgotten, because we shall be told that this is not an object for the nation to care for. One of those institutions is the British Museum, which really exists solely for the purpose of preserving knowledge. Another institution is the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. We have again private foundations: the Meteorological Observatory at Kew; the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford, and the like. All those institutions are founded, not in the least with regard to education alone, but for the purpose of promoting the growth of knowledge. He thought it really very little use for us to be too indefinite; and that, if we wish to produce any result, we must have some definite plan and programme. His own idea was tha it would be very desirable to found in the universities of Oxfordt and Cambridge certain specific institutions for the promulgation of scientific research; using the term scientific research in its widest sense, and include in it all knowledge which is capable of being made the subject of research; but certainly specific institutions should be founded for this object. It will not do to trust these great institutions to the growth of mere ordinary professorships, but he would certainly like to see certain specific institutions devoted to this object, which should represent the various great departments of human knowledge. Those institutions to be connected with professors specially selected for the objects which they have to fulfil, and where the professors would be provided with assistance and apparatus, and every means and appliance which could really be valuable and useful to them for the purposes of research; and he did not think that much less, or anything less, than this, would fulfil the object which we desire.

The Chairman moved, as the next resolution, "That it is desirable, in the interest of national progress and education, that professorships and special institutions shall be founded in the universities for the promotion of scientific research."

Professor Seeley spoke on the question of prize fellowships. He said the speeches to which he had had the pleasure of listening had brought the question of University Reform to a focus. He anticipated that this meeting, particularly if the movement were followed out further, would convey to the English mind an idea which it had perhaps no very great natural capacity for conceiving. The preceding speakers, said the Professor, have introduced to the Englishman to-night a character for whom we have found it difficult to find a name, because there is no name for him in the English language, and we have been obliged to call him in the German Gelehrter, and in French we call him a savant, but there is no English name for him. He is a person who is engaged in mature study, and who lives by his study; and we have made it plain that our object in University Reform is one definite thing; and that is to find for this person at the same time as we find him a name, a career. But we shall be met by an assertion that he already has a career in England, and he has also a name-that he is, in fact, the Fellow of a College. He wished to say a word or two first about this Fellow of a College, and about certain popular reasons for which it is supposed to be desirable always to have such persons. If you were to ask most English people about the English universities, they would say that the most glorious feature about them is just this that a young man may go up, from any part of the country, without a penny in his pocket, and may get 300l. a-year given him for life; and to take away that, is simply to take away the scholastic glory of England, and whatever makes its universities superior to the beggarly universities of the Continent. To give a young man 300l. a-year, they think, is a thing which explains itself; but if you come to examine their meaning, you will hardly question that they are looking at the matter as a question of charity; that they want the young man to receive so much to do him good, and to give

him a start in life.

He would, however, remark that he thought the objects of charity should be those who stand in need of it, and are not likely to be able to help themselves. But we carefully select young men in the vigour of life; and, not only that, but young men who have shown themselves to be possessed of more than ordinary abilities, that is to say, just the very young men who can get on in life without any such help. He recommended, if these institutions are retained, simply on the ground of charity, that these fellowships should be given to men carefully selected, whose abilities are less than those of others. Again, it is said, how excellent a thing it is that a young man going to the bar, in his first year of brieflessness, should have his fellowship to fall