which we sum up the light-do not localise the light, but throw it together-it does not matter whether your clock goes well or not, you are certain to have a result worthy of credit. But if you employ such an instrument as Prof. Respighi employed, and abolish the slit altogether, the weight of any observations made with such conditions is very great.

Captain Maclear, who was observing with me at Bekul, has undoubtedly shown that when the light of our atmosphere is cut off by the interposition of the dark moon, we see very many more bright lines than we do when this is not the case, the lines being of unequal height.

Mr. Pringle, also at Bekul, showed that, at the end of totality, many lines flashed into one of these instruments, carried under these difficult conditions.

Captain Fyers, the Surveyor-General of Ceylon, observing with a spectroscope of the second kind, saw something like a reversal of all the lines at the beginning, but nothing of the kind at the end.

Mr. Fergusson, observing with a similar instrument, saw reversal neither at the beginning nor the end.

Mr. Moseley, whose observations are of great weight, says that at the beginning of the eclipse he did not see this reversal of lines. Whether it was visible at the end he could not tell, because at the close the slit had travelled off the edge of the

moon.

Prof. Respighi, using no slit whatever, and being under the best conditions for seeing the reversal of the lines, certainly did not see it at the beginning, but he considers he saw it at the end, though about this he is doubtful.

From the foregoing general statement of the observations made on the eclipse of last year, it will be seen that knowledge has been very greatly advanced, and that most important data have been obtained to aid in the discussion of former observations. Further, many of the questions raised by the recent observations make it imperatively necessary that future eclipses should be carefully observed, as periodic changes in the corona may then possibly be found to occur. In these observations the instruments above described should be considered normal, and they should be added to as much as possible.

I had intended, if time had permitted me, to point out how much better we are prepared for the observation of an eclipse now than we were when we went to India, and how a system of photograph record should be introduced into the spectroscopic and polariscopic work; but time will not allow me to do more than suggest this interesting topic. I am anxious, however, that you should allow me one minute more to say how very grateful we feel for the assistance rendered by all we met, to which assistance so much of our success must be ascribed. I wish thus publicly to express the extreme gratitude of every one of our Expedition to the authorities in India and in Ceylon for the assistance we received from them, and our sorrow that Admiral Cockburn, a warm and well-known friend to Science, who placed his flagship at the disposal of the expedition, and the Viceroy, whose influence in our favour was felt in every region of India whither our parties went, and to whom we gave up our ship, are now, alas! beyond the expression of our thanks. We are also anxious to express our obligations to the directors and officers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company for the magnificent way in which they aided us. If they had not assisted us as they did, Science would have gained very much less than she has done from the observations of the last eclipse.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

THE Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club for October 1872, contains but three papers, of which the first is a short one by Dr. Guy, F.R.S., on the "Hand Illuminator Microscope," which is followed by a more elaborate communication of considerable length, by Mr. M. C. Cooke, on "Old Nettle Stems and their Micro-fungi," in which twenty-seven species of fungi are enumerated and described which develop themselves on the old stems of the common nettle.-C. H. Peck, of Albany, U.S., communicates an article on the disease of plum and cherry trees in the United States known as "black knot," and his observations on the structure and growth of the Sphæria morbosa (Schweinitz) which accompanies, or causes, these gouty excrescences. The record of the proceedings of the club completes the contents of the present number.

Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Belgique, No. 7. This number contains a paper, by M. P. J. Van Beneden, on the fossil

whales of Antwerp, in which he describes several new types, among others, one (named Cetotherium) characterised chiefly by the articular condyle on the inferior maxillary, and forming a transition-type between the Balaenoptera and the Cetodonts. Four species of Cetotherium are described. G. Dewalque gives a description, with plate, of a new fossil sponge, met with in the Eifel system; a species of the Astræospongium of Roemer, so named from the six-rayed star forms composing it. A new mode of estimating the advantage of binocular vision over monocular, as regards the brightness or clearness of objects, is proposed by H. Valerius. He employs Foucault's photometer, which consists of a long box, having a glass disc fixed in one end of it, and a pasteboard diaphragm in the direction of the axis of the box, moveable to or from the disc with screws. Lights are placed on either side of the diaphragm, which thus forms shadows on the disc, and the diaphragm is so adjusted that the shadow from each light occupies half of the disc. The lights having been so adjusted that the disc seems uniformly lighted, their relative intensities are as the squares of the distances separating them from the disc. M. Valerius uses, for his purpose, a prismatic_tube, through which he observes the disc of the photometer. It contains a vertical screen which conceals one-half of the disc from one of the eyes. Suppose the disc to be receiving equal quantities of light from the two sources, the observer, on looking through the tube, finds that the half-disc seen with only one eye, appears less illuminated than the other. The equality is restored by moving one of the lights, and the distance of the motion is measured. This paper is followed by one on formulæ in Ballistics, by J. M. De Tilly.-In the literature department, Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove gives an interesting account of certain documents which he examined at Hatfield House, bearing on the later history of Mary Queen of Scots. He discusses the celebrated casket letters, two of which are preserved at Hatfield, and are considered by him to be translations from the Scotch text. The letters are given in lithograph.-E. Varenbergh communicates an account of a journey made by three Flemish gentlemen to Nuremberg in the thirteenth century; an exact statement being made of the expenses incurred in travelling. One or two minor articles complete the number.

Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie.-No. 7 (1872) commences with a paper of careful research, by H. Knoblauch, on the passage of heat-rays through inclined diathermanous plates. The rays, polarised by a Nicol's prism, were caused to pass horizontally to the plate, which was moveable about a vertical axis, and, passing through it, affected a thermopile. Two things determine the passage of radiant heat through inclined plates-the nature of the ray's polarisation, and the absorptivity of the substance composing the plate. These two influences are fully investigated and their effects described.-A continued account, by Hagenbach, of researches on Fluorescence is followed by a somewhat mathematical paper by Ketteler (also a continuation), on the influence of astronomical motion on optical phenomena. Dr. Stoletow discusses at some length the "Func tion of Magnetisation" of soft iron, and a description is given by G. Vom Rath, of the meteoric stones which fell at Ibbenbühren in 1870. W. Beetz, in a short note, contests the assertion of Zöllner, that an electric current is generated in the flowing of water, pointing out that, in the experiments made, the electric phenomena probably arose from the actual formation of a voltaic element consisting of two different metals (of tap and pipe), and the water, so that the same thing might be observed though the water was at rest. Zöllner's theory of terrestrial magnetism connects itself with the observation in question, as he supposes the flowing liquid masses in the earth's interior generate electric currents by their motion. This number contains, in addition, two contributions on the structure of hailstones, and one or two other short notes.

No. 8 contains the concluding part of Herr Hagenbach's researches on Fluorescence. His experiments, made with a great variety of substances, confirm Stokes's laws. He considers that all the rays are capable of exciting fluorescence. The maxima of the fluorescence varied from 7 (in chlorophyll) downwards. The spectrum of the fluorescent light varied also for different substances, but no necessary connection was apparent between the "'intermittence" in the fluorescence of the ordinary spectrum, and that in the fluorescence spectrum. Change of solvent often displaced the maxima. He points out the similarity between 'phosphorescence and fluorescence, and thinks these are phenomena differing not in kind, but only in degree.-In the next paper

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1872

tive character of scientific work, the want of intelligent appreciation on the part of the public, of even the value and importance of such work by which the student

ENDOWMENTS

NOTWITHSTANDING the great development of

scientific education, and the firm and prominent position which Science holds in public estimation, it must be admitted that a profound dissatisfaction and anxiety are the prevailing feelings with which the conditions and prospects of English science are regarded by the cultivators of knowledge. To the outside observer these sentiments appear simply captious and unreasonable. When so much has been done, why on earth should we complain? The truth, however, unhappily is, that in the midst of our apparent abundance we have still a great deficiency; and those fruits and results of Science, in the way of scientific research and discovery, which afford the true measure of our scientific condition, have by no means proportionably increased. Indeed it may be doubted whether the annual harvest of scientific truth is even as abundant as twenty or thirty years since, when Science had hardly penetrated even the outer crust of English society. The character of our scientific periodicals is essentially altered. The Journal of the Chemical Society, for example, of which the original and proper function was to print the investigations of English chemists, now appears to exist simply to inform us of what is accomplished elsewhere. The volume for the year 1871 is a stout octavo of 1,224 pages; of these, however, not more than 154 are occupied with original communications read before the Society, while the rest of the volume is filled with innumerable abstracts of the investigations of the chemists of Germany and France. Ten years ago the same journal contained on the average at least 400 pages of original matter.

Now, the perfection of science, in all the various aspects in which it appears as an instrument of human progress, is manifested only in scientific inquiry; and to the scientific mind no technical skill, no abundance of information, can be a substitute for this, or compensate for its absence.

This view of the condition of Science is not invalidated by the circumstance that a certain number of distinguished Englishmen are to be found whose scientific work is of the highest order.

In this country there are now, as has been the case in each generation for the last two hundred years, a limited number of individuals of powerful intellect and elevated aspirations, who have made scientific research the main purpose and object of their lives. Of such we have happily sufficient living examples to preserve among us the true type of the scientific investigator, and to dispel the apprehension of intellectual degeneracy. The labours, however, of modern Science are on far too extensive a scale to be carried on simply by the efforts of eminent individuals. Science requires the services of a class devoted to the extension of knowledge, precisely as other classes of society are devoted to commerce, to politics, or to agriculture. Such a class does not exist among us, and its absence is the greatest defect in our social system. Undoubtedly there are many causes which interfere with the growth of such a class. The unremuneraNo. 163-VOL. VII.

the sympathy and support of others, deter many from the career of Science. Moreover, the very spread of scientific knowledge and education is, in its results, by no means in all respects favourable to the pursuit of pure Science. A demand is created for the services of scientific men in a technical direction which it is very difficult to meet, and which induces the student of Science to turn his attention to the practical and remunerative rather than to the theoretical aspect of his vocation. Many a man, too, of genius for research is compelled by the sad necessities of life to labour at the oar for the service of the community, is drafted into the ranks of popular lecturers to amuse the public with ready talk and brilliant experiments, or spends a life which he would willingly devote to scientific investigation as an officer of health, or an analytical and manufacturing chemist.

Such impediments, however, to the indulgence of men's higher tastes and desires, have their root in the very organisation and necessities of modern society, and are not peculiar to English life. But Science has in this country one special difficulty to contend with the utter apathy in regard to the advancement of knowledge which has so long prevailed at the English Universities, which, without any doubt, is the main cause of our disasters. In Germany the universities are the very centres of intellectual progress; and we might reasonably have hoped that here also amid the distractions of modern life these great institutions would have afforded at least one refuge for science and learning, and have supplied the few who might possess any exceptional capacity for these pursuits with the means of existence and the means of work. Such, indeed, was undoubtedly the main object to which these noble institutions were destined by their founders, who equipped them with all the appliances necessary for the cultivation of the knowledge of their day. But, unfortunately, they fell into wrong hands, and the class to whose protection and care these great interests were confided betrayed in every way the trust committed to them; until at length abuses reached such a point that, after a prolonged agitation, university reformers succeeded in obtaining the interference of the Legislature in the form of the Executive Commission of 1854. The unsatisfactory way in which this commission proceeded to remedy the evils complained of is even now not generally understood.

When we consider the profound importance of learning and scientific discovery, not alone to the material and physical, but also to the intellectual and moral progress of the nation, we might well have anticipated that in any reform of the universities the first object of our statesmen and legislators would have been to provide for these great interests, and to restore the endowments of the university in this respect to their ancient uses. But the commission did nothing of the kind; its efforts were mainly directed to the suppression of pecuniary jobbery. But this having been effected, the further changes which they introduced proceeded upon the lowest possible estimate of the functions of an University, which they appear to have regarded not at all as a national instrument for the

G

furtherance of knowledge, but simply as a superior kind of Grammar School. Of the University, as thus understood, pecuniary prizes were to be the motive power, and competitive examination the regulating principle. The resources of the colleges were dealt with from this point of view. Numerous scholarships were founded for the support of students, on a scale so extensive, that, as has been computed, one-third of the students of Oxford are thus subsidised during their University career. The remainder and greater part of the endowments was nearly all devoted to fellowships, varying in value from 200l. to 300l. a year; on these two objects it is estimated that at least 120,000l. is annually expended by the colleges of Oxford.

The fellowship which they thus created is indeed a unique and singular institution. It is a life-estate conferred by a corporate body, without exacting in return any services whatever from its possessor, either to the college or to the community at large; and the chief result of the labours of the Executive Commission, whose business it was to reform the University, was the establishment of this gigantic system of sinecure pensions, conferred upon young men in the prime and vigour of life, as the reward of having passed a successful examination. When the ordinances framed by the Commissioners come fully into operation, there will be, in Oxford alone, about 300 sinecure fellowships.

In the arrangements of the Commissioners the most contemptuous disregard was manifested for the interests of science and learning. A few professorships of ancient date founded by men of a very different stamp, which the colleges had suppressed, were revived, but no real or adequate provision was made even for the maintenance of lecturers and professors necessary to carry on the education of the place, and out of these vast funds, not a sixpence was devoted to the advancement of knowledge or the promotion of scientific or literary research, or to the support of museums and laboratories.

These arrangements were not based upon any very high estimate of human motives and desires, and it would have been surprising indeed if an ideal University, devoted to the interests of learning, knowledge, and truth, should have sprung from such ashes. As a matter of fact, complaints are heard on all sides of the futility of this system, and the necessity of a redistribution of the college endowments is widely felt. In this movement the Government have taken the initiative by the appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire into the revenues of the Universities and Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. These revenues have never as yet been fully disclosed, but we may anticipate that a good deal of surprise and even indignation will be felt when the amplitude of these re. sources is contrasted with the inadequate results attained by them. Another contingency will then arise, to be deprecated by every lover of knowledge, the possible alienation and dissipation of the noble inheritance of science and learning which has been so inappropriately employed. It was in connection with these questions and with the view of considering the best application, in the interests of mature study and scientific research, of the endowments of the Universities and Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge that the public meeting was held at the Freemasons' Tavern on November 16, of which the report appeared in

this journal on November 28. The spirit and purpose of those present at this meeting will be best understood from the resolutions passed by it. These resolutions were :— 1. That to have a class of men whose lives are devoted to research is a national object.

2. That it is desirable, in the interest of national progress and education, that professorships and special institutions shall be founded in the Universities for the promotion of scientific research.

3. That the present mode of awarding fellowships as prizes has been found unsuccessful as a means of promoting mature study and original research, and that it is desirable that it should be discontinued.

4. That a sufficient and properly organised body of resident teachers of various grades should be provided from the Fellowship Fund.

The Society for the Organisation of Academical Study, founded at this meeting, is constituted by no means in the exclusive interests of the natural sciences, but for the sake of the totality of knowledge. The apprehensions which are felt in regard to the condition of research in the physical sciences, are similarly and equally felt in other departments of knowledge, and the objects of this Society are such as to secure the good-wili and adhesion of every genuine student. Much consideration will be necessary to devise really practical arrangements, by which such ideas may be carried out. On this point the evidence of those distinguished persons who have been examined before the Science Commission will be of the greatest value; but it is to be hoped that all those who are familiar with the requirements of the several departments of Science will turn their serious attention to the subject, and give to the Society the benefit of their co-operation and advice, with the view of hereafter laying before the Government an adequate and practical scheme for the re-constitution of the Colleges and Universities, not simply as educational bodies, but as national foundations for the preservation and extension of knowledge. B. C. BRODIE

THE METEOROLOGY OF THE FUTURE T would be a curious inquiry which we commend to those learned in statistics, to determine how many millions of observations have been made in the British Isles on dry and wet bulb thermometers, on barometers, and on other meteorological instruments. It would be a still more curious inquiry, seeing that the infinite industry displayed in these observations shows that the importance of the study of Meteorology is universally conceded, to determine why it is that meteorologists, state-endowed and otherwise, have, as a rule, been content to grope their way in the dark, and not only not seek to find, but persistently refuse the clue, which, if followed, would bring them into the light of day. When some one some centuries hence-thank heavens, we have always that to look to in all branches of research-comes to consider the work done by meteorologists during the present century, he will, unless he be some patient German Dryasdust determined to examine all minutes of Boards of Visitors, all Kew Committee Records, and the like, give up the task in the most utter despair, and on the whole perhaps this is the best thing that could happen,