in most other countries," and was commonly known by the name of the Osnaburg torture.1

At Munich, in the Prison de la Cour, was a "black torture room," of which he gives the following description :

"In this room there is a table covered with black cloth and fringe. Six chairs for the magistrates and secretaries, covered also with black cloth, are elevated two steps above the floor, and painted black. Various engines of torture, some of which are stained with blood, hang round the room. When the criminals suffer, the candles are lighted; for the windows are shut close, to prevent their cries being heard abroad. Two crucifixes are presented to the view of the unhappy objects. But it is too shocking to relate their different modes of cruelty. Even women are not spared." 2

Nothing, however, surpasses the account given of the two prisons, known as the old and the new, at Liège.

"In two rooms of the old prison I saw six cages made very strong with iron hoops, four of which were empty. (The dimensions were seven feet by six feet nine inches, and six feet and a half high. On one side was an aperture of six inches by four, for giving in the victuals.) These were dismal places of confinement, but I soon

found worse.

In descending, deep below ground from the gaoler's apartments, I heard the moans of the miserable wretches in the dark dungeons. The sides and roofs were all stone. In wet weather, water from the fosses gets into them, and has greatly damaged the floors. Each of them had two small apertures, one for admitting air, and another, with a shutter over it strongly bolted, for putting in food to the prisoners The dungeons in the new prison are abodes of misery still more shocking; and confinement in them so overpowers human nature, as sometimes irrecoverably to take away the senses. I heard the cries of the distracted as I went down into them. One woman, however, I saw, who (as I was told) had sustained this horrid confinement forty-seven years without becoming distracted. The cries of the sufferers in the torture-chamber may be heard by passengers without, and guards are placed to prevent them from stopping and listening. A physician and surgeon always attend when the torture is applied; and, on a signal given by a bell, the gaoler brings in wine, vinegar, and water, to prevent the sufferers from expiring. 'The tender mercies of the wicked are cruel.' '' 1

Passing to France, we find that torture was still customary in some prisons there. At Avignon, where Howard noticed the rings,

pulleys, etc., for the torture, the gaoler told him that he had seen drops of blood mixed with the sweat, on the breasts of some who had suffered it.1

In Russia the punishments were hideously cruel. In St. Petersburg Howard was shown all the instruments commonly used, including a machine (happily already disused) for breaking the arms and legs, an instrument for slitting or lacerating the nostrils; and the knout, or knoot, as he always writes it. He was also present at the infliction of this terrible punishment upon two criminals, one of whom was a woman, who received twenty-five strokes, her companion receiving sixty, after which "both seemed but just alive." 2

3

Even in Switzerland Howard found "excruciating engines of torture," at Freyburg. At Geneva he "hoped to have found no torture-chambers," but "had only the pleasure to hear that none had suffered in them these twenty-five years." 4

CHAPTER VII

LATER INVESTIGATIONS AND JOURNEYS, 1777-1784

Death of Howard's Sister-Renewed Investigations into the State of Prisons-The Question of Transportation-The Hulks-Act for the Establishment of PenitentiariesForeign Tour-Accident at Amsterdam-Letters from Abroad - Visit to a Capuchin Convent Return to England-Investigation into the Condition of Prisoners of War-Tour in England, Scotland, and Ireland-Difficulties concerning the Penitentiaries-Howard resigns his Office as Commissioner - Foreign Travel - Letter from Moscow-Howard and the King's Courier-Visit to Ireland-Travels in Spain-The Inquisition-Letters from Spain Second Edition of The State of Prisons published.

T

HE first three months of 1777 were, as we have already seen, occupied with the printing of the first edition of The State of Prisons, the dedication of which to the House of Commons bears date Cardington, April 5, 1777. Of Howard's movements during the remainder of the year we have scarcely any notices. As far as we can gather no prisons were visited by him. It is probable that the greater part of the year was spent in the enjoyment of a well-earned rest at Cardington. In August, however, the rest was broken by a summons to London, owing to the illness of his sister, which terminated fatally before he could arrive, as he describes in the following curious letter to his servant Thomasson :

"THOMAS, I got to town about seven o'clock this morning, but alas! too late to see my poor sister, and take one final leave. She died five o'clock yesterday afternoon. You will come to town on Friday, bring all my black clothesbutter, cheese, sage, balm, and mint. Ann will buy a mourning gown. I will pay for it. I hope to be down some time next week.-Yours,

"LAMB'S, CONDUIT STREET,

August 13, 1777."

"JOHN HOWARD.1

Miss Howard, by her will, left to her brother a sum of £15,000 and her house in Great Ormond Street. This accession to his fortune was evidently not unwelcome. The expenses of his journeys must have been enormous; and we can well believe an admission, made later on to Mr. Whitbread, that he had been somewhat involved by his reforming schemes. But he had no intention of using the legacy for his own comfort.