states of continental Europe. It was from the prison for juvenile criminals at San Michele, in Rome, that Howard drew the motto from Cicero, which he prefixed to his book; as over the door of this house he found inscribed what he justly calls "the following admirable sentence, in which the grand purpose of all civil policy relative to criminals is expressed" :-Parum est improbos coercere poena nisi probos efficias disciplina.1 The wretched custom of demanding "garnish from newcomers was almost peculiar to England; at any rate it was "not common in foreign prisons." 2 In France it was strictly prohibited. "If prisoners demand of a newcomer anything of that sort, on whatever pretence; if, in order to obtain it, they distress him by hiding his clothes, etc., they are shut up for a fortnight in a dark dungeon, and suffer other punishment. They are obnoxious to the same chastisement for hiding one another's clothes, or being otherwise injurious.” 1 1 The State of Prisons, p. 114. 2 Ib. p. 84. The regulations might not recognise garnish, but it is to be feared that it was very commonly exacted by the prisoners. James Choyce, a master-mariner who was taken prisoner by the French in 1802, certainly speaks of it as if it was common. " We remained five days in the prison at Limoges, where there were a number of French villains of notorious character, who insisted on our paying our footing, and, as we had no money, tried to strip the clothes off our backs. This we naturally resisted, and the jailors hearing the row put us in a separate apartment, otherwise we should have been stripped of every rag we had on. This we found to be the custom in all large gaols, where felons were confined, who, having nothing to lose but rags and dirt, endeavoured to plunder all newcomers, whether French or English; and any poor conscripts, who had deserted and been caught, and were sent from prison to prison till they reached the army, fell a prey to these merciless scoundrels." The Log of a Jack Tar, p. 159, cf. p. 175, where Choyce describes how he joined others in making newcomers pay their bien-venu, as it was called, and "lived well that night and day" as the result. In general there seems to have been more attempt at discipline, classification, and proper separation of the sexes than in England; and prisoners were less at the mercy of gaolers and turnkeys. In France, Howard found "good rules for preserving peace; for suppressing profaneness; for prohibiting gaolers or turnkeys abusing prisoners by beating them or otherwise; forbidding their furnishing them with wine or spirituous liquors, so as to cause excess, drunkenness, etc. Keepers are punished for this, when known to the magisstrates, by a fine for the first offence; and for the second by stripes. They are allowed to sell some things to their prisoners; but the quality, quantity, and price must be such as the ordinances of police define and require. The turnkeys visit the dungeons four times a day; in the morning when the prisons are opened, at noon, at six in the evening, 1 The State of Prisons, p. 167. EMPLOYMENT OF CRIMINALS IN SWITZERLAND From an engraving in Howard's State of the Prisons in England and Wales and at ten at night. If the turnkeys find any prisoners sick, they must acquaint the physician and surgeon, who visit them; and, if needful, order them to more wholesome rooms till they recover." 1 It is also noted that "the nomination of a gaoler belongs to the magistrates. When he has been nominated he is proposed to the procureur-general; and if, after a careful inquiry into his character, it appears that he has the reputation of a man of probity, he is fixed in the office, and takes an oath of fidelity. The office is freely given him without any expense whatever; so that keepers are not tempted, by paying for their places, to oppress their prisoners: to remove all pretext for so doing, rents, which they formerly paid to the Crown, are remitted, and the leases. given up." 2 In Switzerland he found many excellent rules. Solitary confinement was the rule for the felons, that they may not, said the keepers, tutor one another.3 Proper care was taken of the sick. The keepers were forbidden to sell to the prisoners, wine, brandy, or other provisions. Gaming of any sort was prohibited. Care was taken for the spiritual well-being of the prisoners, and it seemed to Howard that a principal object was "to make 1 The State of Prisons, p. 168. 3 Ib. p. 124. 2 Ib. p. 169. |