and comfort themselves by reflecting that such popularity cannot last.'

§ 29. We have now traced the principal centres from which opinions are diffused in the present state of society, and have endeavoured to show how far the guides of opinion are invested with authority, and whence this authority arises. We have also attempted to indicate the means by which that authority may be rendered more trustworthy, and what are the limits within which it can be properly trusted.

With respect to the influence of the government upon the opinions of the people, we have seen that one essential postulate for its wholesome operation is, that it should not outstep its proper province. A government may, as in the Oriental countries, keep down its subjects by mere force; it may, as has been done in some free States, conciliate support by corruption; but both these are short-lived expedients. The only stable foundation for a government is its moral authority. So long as it is looked up to with respect, confidence, and esteem, by the body of the people, it stands on a rock. Now, for a government to acquire a real moral authority, it must fulfil two (among other) conditions. It must do well those things which it is fitted to do; and it must abstain from attempting to do those things which it is not fitted to do. In general, a government violates both these rules. It attempts many things which it is ill-qualified, if not wholly unable, to perform; and having wasted its force upon distant impossibilities, it omits to discharge those functions which lie close within its reach. If, however, it keeps steadily within its proper province, and within that province exercises its powers with ability, discretion, and public spirit, it can scarcely fail to acquire weight and authority with the people, and will thus be able really to guide their opinions, so far as it is competent to guide them.

With respect to public instruction, (whether it be controlled by learned bodies, or churches, or voluntary associations,) the cardinal maxim is, that as all men cannot be judges of all things, the learner should be instructed in the conclusions and results at which the most eminent authorities in each department of knowledge have arrived, and should, as far as possible, be furnished with an instrument for testing the soundness of the method which each original inquirer may employ. To the application of this maxim there appears to be no limit. It may be extended from instruction

in logic, and the methods of scientific investigation, to the cautions against current delusions and other impostures which may be given to the children of a village school; from the rules for the selection of counsellors on state affairs and of professional advisers, to the marks by which even the working-classes might be taught to distinguish honest and well-intentioned guides, from persons who seek to make a profit by practising on their credulity.

The newspapers, and other publications of the periodical press, though they may be conducted by persons writing under an imperfect sense of responsibility, have nevertheless, both in this country and on the Continent, assumed a new character, and risen to a higher intellectual level, since the Peace of 1815. Independently of the opinions which they circulate, they furnish a large repertory of positive facts, authenticated by the endorsement of respectable publishing establishments; and they form a powerful counter-influence to the superstitious fancies and flying rumours which prevail in countries destitute of an accurate daily chronicle of contemporary events.

In attempting to find the means of giving currency to sound opinions, by the influence of a predominant authority, it is to be borne in mind, that there are certain classes of opinions which it is more important to diffuse among the community than others. In many cases, the knowledge of a subject may be confined to a few persons, and yet the public may derive as much benefit from it as if it were generally diffused. Provided that the knowledge is on record, and that it is not concealed from the public, it is immaterial that many persons should make themselves masters of the subject. It is to be wished that the knowledge should be accessible to all the world; but not that all the world should actually possess it. Thus, when we say that a court of justice is open to the public, we do not expect that all the public will demand admission. Most mechanical and other inventions connected with physical science, as well as remedies belonging to the practice of medicine, fall under this head. So long as the contrivance or work can be produced, and it is not one of the artes deperdita; so long as the medical remedy or treatment is known; it can be obtained by purchase, or by the employment of a professional man, without any knowledge or understanding of its principles. Little advantage would arise if the whole community understood the art of manufacturing glass, or gunpowder, or of making watches. The diffusion of the practice of these arts would not tend to their perfection;

it would not cheapen their products, or extend their use; on the contrary, the diffusion of such practical knowledge would counteract the division of labour, by which production is facilitated and cheapened. So, when the knowledge of the Roman formulæ of actions, which had been kept secret by the patrician order, was divulged by the theft of the scribe Flavius, the public were benefited by the disclosure, though the number of persons who actually studied them was small. The knowledge of Sanscrit, likewise, was at one time preserved as an inviolable secret by the Brahmins; at last it was divulged; and the world has since obtained all the advantage which can be derived from a knowledge of Sanscrit, although the number of persons who have mastered the language has been very limited.

But if the subject be one on which each person is required to act for himself, and he cannot procure what he wants by exchange from others, then it is important that correct opinions in relation to it should be diffused through the community, and that all people should be able to guide their judgment in the matter by a reference to a trustworthy authority. This is the case with most of the opinions by which men steer their course, both in public and private life. In all cases where a man is called upon to act, or to decide, he ought to have such a store of those opinions which immediately preside over practice, as will enable him to direct his own course with safety; or, if he be not so provided, he ought to know how to chuse competent and honest guides.

If, by a judicious combination of the means above indicated, this end could be approximately attained, the influence of impostors would be diminished; violence would be more rarely resorted to, especially by crowds and organised bodies; the utility of a strict observance of law and order, for all classes, would be more generally recognised; the evidence of positive facts and the light of experience would be more uniformly consulted; reason would be more in the ascendant, and would constantly exercise a greater influence over a larger portion of the population; and discussion of all sorts would be at once more free, more tolerant, more intelligent, and more fruitful of results. As a consequence of these influences, public opinion would be more enlightened and wary, and less prone to run headlong after an ephemeral object of admiration or hatred. Its general character would be less puerile and more manly.

To whatever extent the changes which have been just indicated

may ever actually take place, it is certain that the movement of Western Europe, but especially of England, during the last thirtyfive years, has been in a direction coincident with this progressive tendency. The movement may have been retarded, counteracted, and crossed by numerous influences, some intentional, some fortuitous; but such has been the constant inclination of its course, and such it may be expected to continue, perhaps with an accelerated velocity.

CHAPTER X.

ON THE ABUSES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF AUTHORITY.

§ 1. In previous parts of this Essay, an attempt has been made to trace out the proper province of authority in matters of opinion to show what are the cases in which we ought to be guided by the opinion of others, as well as to give practical tests for selecting the persons who are most competent to act as guides, in questions both of speculation and practice, and for distinguishing them from impostors or pretenders to knowledge, who would only mislead their followers. If these indications are sufficient, they would operate as preservatives against abuses of the principle of authority; if the right use and application of the principle is secured, its perversion is avoided. Nevertheless, the evils arising from a misdirection of confiding followers, by persons exercising an influence over their opinion, are so great and numerous, that it may be useful to exemplify in detail some of the more prominent forms of the abuse in question.

§ 2. It has been already shown, that great respect is due to the opinions of persons who have devoted their lives to the study of sciences, have employed upon it the powers of an acute and vigorous intellect, and have been actuated by an honest desire of discovering and teaching the truth. This respect, however, should be the willing obedience of a freeman-not the blind submission of a slave: the teacher to whose authority we bow ought to be regarded rather as an adviser and counsellor, than as a dictator and master. There may be an excessive reverence for scientific doctrines handed down from a former age, and received among existing philosophers, which may check the due freedom of investigation, perpetuate error, prevent originality of thought and the discovery of new truths, and maintain science in a stationary and unimproving state. Although (says Lord Bacon) the position