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rushes on and on,-no planet lingering behind,-all deriving light, as a single penumbra. It would seem that some of these spots are for millions of years, from his unwithered countenance, and drinking formed out of the combinations of two or three others comprised in renewed splendour from that central fountain of splendours-in the same penumbra. On the 26th of June a group of spots sudlo! meteoric messengers arrive from the outer confines of space, denly made its appearance, which measured in angular extent destined themselves to replenish the replenisher, to re-glorify the one-fifth of the radius of the sun; but since that date it has exglorifier of all his planetary subordinates. In they rush, with speed perienced continued variation, and on the 29th occupied an analmost inconceivable to mortal men; in they rush, and fresh with gular extent equal to one-fourth of the sun's radius. a splendour greater even than that of the king of luminaries! And Those who connect meteorology with these solar appearances as soon as they have delivered their brightening burden of lumi- are disposed to attribute to them the recent anomalous weather nosity, away they fly,-away, away, thirty-five thousand miles, which we have all so loudly and vainly lamented, while others well nigh as swift as thought! They have done their duty,-fed attribute to them a favourable action on terrestrial temperature. their supreme sovereign; and then they die down into his ordinary These regard them as favourable to the harvest; but there are probrightness, seen and shining no more! phets of evil who think them ominous of coming judgment, and that But a truce to imagination. What think the unpoetical astro- they are obscure, yet decided, presages of the close of the solar nomers ?-the men who deal in sines and co-sines, in ellipses, and dispensation! It may be small consolation to remember that transverse and conjugate diameters? What say these calculating several stars of the first magnitude amongst the small number star-gazers to this astonishing revelation ? nearest to our system have become suddenly dim, and have been finally extinguished. Is the same fate in store for the sun? In the neighbourhood of great spots, or extensive groups of spots, large spaces are sometimes observed to be covered with strongly-marked curved or branching streaks, more luminous than the remainder. These are named facule (Latin for small torches), and among these facule spots frequently break out, if not already existing there. Sir J. Herschell regards them as the ridges of immense waves in the luminous regions of the sun's atmosphere, indicative of violent agitations in their neighbourhood. The spots referred to as recently visible on the sun might be viewed through a common piece of smoked glass. A large one was observed upon the upper part of the sun's disc, at about onefourth its diameter. On the right, nearer to the middle of the disc, is another spot nearly of the same size, but not so brilliant. It must be remarked that, although the surfaces of these spots may appear black, they are nevertheless more luminous than platinum in a state of fusion; since a globule of this metal in a state of fusion appears red in the solar light, and appears as a spot when interposed between the eye and the sun. It is questionable whether we can at present draw any very probable conclusion from these phenomena as to the true physical constitution of the sun itself. The only fairly-sustained conjecture as to the nature of the spots yet hazarded is, that they are the comparatively dark body of the great luminary laid bare to our sight by those vast fluctuations in the luminous regions of its atmosphere, to which it seems to be subject. Lalande thought that eminences of the nature of mountains are hereby laid bare, and that they project above the luminous ocean. Sir Wm. Herschell, with greater probability, considered the luminous strata of the atmosphere to be sustained far above the level of the solid body by a transparent, elastic medium, carrying on its upper surface (or rather at some considerably lower level within its depth), a cloudy stratum which, being strongly illuminated from above, reflects a considerable portion of light to our eyes, and forms a penumbra, while the solid body, shaded by the clouds, reflects none. He supposes the temporary removal of both powerful upward currents of the atmosphere, arising, perhaps, from spiracles in the body, or from local agitation.

One eminent living practical astronomer, Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, discovers in this revelation the incidence of a luminous meteor upon the sun, the resistance it meets with upon its arrival in the vicinity of the solar surface being such as to arrest and determine a velocity of 9,000 miles in one minute. This amount is obtained by subtracting the observed velocity, 7,000 miles per minute, from the orbital velocity, 16,000 miles per minute. Such a destruction of motion in the meteor must of necessity be accompanied by the evolution of great heat and intense light. What, therefore, imaginative men might have dreamed, practical men really ascertained. This was a feeding of the sun,-a new influx of light, a whirl and a rush of glory to glory. In five fortunate minutes, the secret of solar sustentation was revealed to two fortunate gazers. Happy chance and happy coincidence was this. A few minutes, that might have been idly passed, were industriously employed. Two gentlemen, who might have been thoughtlessly engaged in wasting time, were busily occupied in their celestial work. The reward and the revelation have been enough for them, and the phenomenon seen during those five minutes has advanced the science at least five years in progress. Who shall conjecture when such another felicitous conjunction of events shall come to pass?-when two sun-gazers shall again look on the sun at the very moment at which fresh meteors shall fall in, flash intensely, and then die out and away for ever? It is a singular confirmation of this phenomenon, and a striking connexion of it with terrestrial phenomena, that the observations at Kew show that on the very day and at the very hour and minute of this unexpected solar disturbance, a moderate yet marked magnetic disturbance took place, while four hours after the succeeding midnight occurred a storm or great disturbance of the magnetic elements, which extended to the southern hemisphere. Here we have a manifest connexion between magnetic action and certain phenomena on the sun's disc,-a connexion which the observations of Schwabe, compared with the magnetical records of our colonial observatories, had already nearly established.

We see, however, several objections to Sir W. Herschell's opinions respecting the constitution of the sun, though much deference must naturally be felt to one who had unrivalled means and powers of observation. We can hardly conceive, for instance, of clouds analogous to those of our atmosphere in hot air. Clouds are the occupants of cold, or at least far colder, regions. Can we suppose them to exist in the immediate vicinity of a fiery body, of lustre so intense that it even disparts and dissipates our clouds at a distance of no less than ninety-five millions of miles? All our clouds are scattered by the increase of a few degrees of heat. We fear, therefore, that nothing as yet known can justify us in pronouncing decidedly on these matters.

A rather curious observation relating to the solar spots has been made by a foreign astronomer. He has seen in the neigh-the strata, but of more of the upper than of the lower, effected by bourhood of the nuclei of large spots, certain patches of light which gradually became dark; and he observed that these primarily luminous and subsequently dark patches were drawn into the darker spaces of the nuclei, and absorbed by them, as if by a kind of vortical attraction. Lighter patches are not unfrequently observed within the penumbra and in the nuclei of solar spots. That the spots are not fixed in their positions upon the sun's disc has long been known and has already been mentioned. But the law of this change has not been rightly conjectured until of late, and again we are indebted for aid in this direction to Mr. Carrington. From his observations we infer that really isolated spots are of rare occurrence, and that the spots commonly occur in groups. The components of each group examined by the above-named gentleman have been found to diverge from one another; and it appears probable that in groups which consist of numerous spots a generation takes place from the centre outwards. Of these spots and their motions we may expect to hear more. But there is another class of spots which are the smallest and the faintest upon the sun's disc, and which are as evanescent as they are faint, that have not yet received that patient attention which could be desired for them. The very characteristics we have named are barriers to their investigation. Though beheld and sketched one day, they may disappear the next and re-appear elsewhere. These fugitive and fainter spots are mostly found in the neighbourhood of the larger ones, and appear to be in some mysterious way connected with them. Of these and their motion we have no further indication at present.

The most important kind of motion amongst solar spots observed by Mr. Carrington is that of drifting, much in the manner of cloud-drifts, which latter indicate the direction of the great courses of the winds which make swift paths for themselves in our atmosphere. So manifest and so decided is this solar drift, that Mr. Carrington conceives it to indicate the existence of a system of currents in the solar photosphere (that is, in the luminous shell surrounding the dark matter of the solar globe), analogous to the polar and equatorial currents which pervade the atmosphere of our earth. Moreover, in those regions of the photosphere where the upper currents descend, and the lower ones ascend, the spots having large and dark nuclei are found in greater abundance than elsewhere, thereby presenting some analogy to those portions of our own atmosphere in which the ascending and descending currents present belts or zones of calm and cloud. M. Chacoride, who has carefully registered the configuration and dimensions of the spots on the sun during the last twelve years, assures us that he has never previously beheld the sun's disc so marked by spots as recently. They appear to be spread over two zones, parallel to the solar equator, in ten or twelve groups, consisting of nearly sixty spots, each surrounded with

We may, nevertheless, fairly conclude that the body of the sun is in a state of intense ignition, like a stone heated to redness, rather than a condition of actual combustion, like burning fuel. Were this latter the case, the body of the sun would be continually wasting away, while the products of combustion would fill the immense surrounding regions, and obscure the solar light. Solid bodies, however, may be in a state of intense ignition, glowing with the most fervent heat, while their constituent material is unconsumed, and still no fumes arise to obscure their brilliance, or impede the emission of their heat. At the same time, an ignited surface is far better adapted than flame to the radiation of heat. Other similar considerations tend to the same conclusion.

Nevertheless, there are those who incline to the opinion that a flaming envelope surrounds the sun, in support of which they cite Arago's statement, that the sun's direct light is not polarized. Arago's opinion on this point, however, is not universally accepted. Observations have been made upon the polarization of the light of the luminous corona by which the sun is surrounded during eclipses, and such polarization has been affirmed by some and denied by others; while by others, again, it is explained as having its origin in our atmosphere.

Dr. Thomas Woods has instituted some experiments of a photographic kind, in order to aid in conjecturing the probable nature of the sun's envelope. It has long been known that the light proceeding from the centre of the sun is more intense than that proceeding from its edge. Woods took several pictures of the sun in a camera obscura, by means of a photographic process, exposing the prepared surface of the plate to be acted upon for different periods of time. He took on the same prepared surface six or eight pictures, each the result of a different length of exposure. On inspection, the pictures were found to be of different sizes, the smallest being produced by the shortest exposure, and the increase in extent being proportional to the length of time the aperture was open, up to a certain size. The centre of the pictures was intensely acted on, and presented the appearance of being what

photographers call "burnt." This deep spot was surrounded by
a ring of light, not so deeply marked. The burut centre increased
in size, but not in depth of intensity, with increased length of
exposure. The ring about it also increased, but not in proportion
to the enlargement of the centre. These experiments prove that
the light from the centre of the sun acts more energetically than
that from its edges, the latter demanding a longer time to pro-
duce as much effect as the former on a photographic surface.
The experimenter then determined to try whether flume would
affect a sensitive plate in the same manner as the sun; and if so,
whether a solid body, producing light, would differ in action. He
therefore exposed a prepared surface in a camera in the focus of
a lighted candle, and also of a gas jet. In both cases the action
was exactly similar to that of the sun, but more marked as to
variety of extent, in the size of the pictures produced, because the
light was not so powerful. In numerous experiments made with |
flames, caused to burn steadily lest their wavering might influence
the result, it was always found that their action on the plate was
similar to that of the rays of the sun's disc, viz., an increased
extent of picture for an increased period of exposure.

The effect of a solid body giving out light but not reflecting it, was now tried. A piece of lime, acted on by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, was rendered luminous, and a picture of it thrown upon the prepared surface of the camera. In one second a deeply marked ring was produced, and the size of the picture of the solid was not influenced by the length of time of the exposure. Taking all there results into consideration, Dr. Woods concludes:-"I have no doubt that the light from the centre of flame acts more energetically than that from the edge, on a surface capable of receiving its impression; and that light from a luminous solid body acts equally powerfully from its centre or its edges; and, therefore, that as the sun affects a sensitive plate similarly with flame, it is probable that its light-producing portion is of a similar

Lature."

It

first of three books which will materially assist the beginner.
is partly similar to a previous book prepared for the Messrs.
Chambers by the same author. We have employed it amongst our
own young friends to advantage, and perhaps for cheapness and
general excellence it is not yet surpassed. It is, like all Mr. Page's
books, plain and straightforward, and pretends to few graces of
style or flowers of diction. It is merely a book of elementary
information.
The Advanced Text-book of Geology is a superior as well as a
larger book, and, as a text-book and nothing more, is deserving
of commendation. It is simply a compendium of the principal
known facts of the science, arranged in due order, and accom
panied with references to other, larger, and more detailed books
on the several topics. One of its great advantage is its brief
notation of the industrial applications of rocks and other geolo
gical formations with relation to agriculture, architecture, and
trade. In all these points it displays sufficient acquaintance
with observed phenomena; and, while we do not agree with
some few of its statements, we can safely commend the book
to the attentive perusal of all students who have advanced
beyond the alphabet of the science.

Experiencing the great difficulties which beset students in encountering a large mass of new, hard, and technical terms, the same author has issued a Handbook of Geological Terms and Geology. We have carefully examined this volume, having it at hand for frequent reference during nine days, and, on the whole, we may applaud the performance. Very many terms are explained in it simply and concisely, and there is no other book of its kind which can compare with it. At the same time, it is often imperfect, and by no means exhaustive of the words which should be explained. We have noticed the absence of several important and difficult terms, but there is so much that is useful and really serviceable to beginners in it, that we have welcomed and recommended the publication, only hoping that another edition may be required, in which the deficiences of the first may be supplied. The chief defect is in the newer terms used by palæontologists, or those who treat of the science of the ancient existences which once dwelt upon our earth.

The last publication of Mr. Page is a tract entitled the Geological Examinator, containing a progressive series of questions adapted to his own books. These seem to serve as an index, and as a series of self-examinations. Although they are merely formal and school-like, they will have their uses for those who need them, and will really examine themselves upon the teachings of this author's books.

We have, however, but an indifferent opinion of such a mode of attempting a comprehension of geology. Geology is essentially and strictly of the quarry and the mine, the mountain and the valley. Just as we recommend schoolboys to study thoroughly one Greek play,-one tragedy, for instance, of Euripides,-rather than to slur over half-a-dozen, so we advise geological students rather to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with one good locality than to acquaint themselves imperfectly and loosely with many. To study this science locally is the true way to study it. Let the beginner select a richly fossiliferous district, and visit it very frequently, and confine himself to it. By this means he will find himself building upon a firm foundation, and advancing from the well known to the little known, instead of from the little known to the less known. In truth, the British strata and fossils are too numerous to be comprehended at first in one general view, and the consequence of aiming too early at such a view is simply confusion.

RECENT ELEMENTARY BOOKS ON GEOLOGY. ONLY second, if second, to astronomy is the science of geology; and it is our intention to register the progress of the one as faithfully as the progress of the other. There is, indeed, an intimate connexion between the two sciences; for while astronomy brings down light from the celestial spaces to illustrate geology, geology in Burn reflects light back to astronomy. The latter deals with many worlds, the former with one, but in dealing with one, it also, in several respects, deals with many at the same time; for many researches relating to this earth have points of community and interest with other worlds, in as far as all worlds move and exist under certain universal laws, and therefore have a common history in the past, and, possibly, in part, a common destiny in the future. No doubt there is a geology of Jupiter, of Saturn, and the Moon, and it may be, that, while we are ascertaining the geological laws which have governed and are now governing our own globe, we are, at the same time, touching upon laws which hold sway over other spheres in different degrees, and according to their different conditions. We might instance half a dozen topics at this moment in which there is such intercommunity of interest, such as the astronomical causes of the changes of climate; the amount of light and heat received from the sun in the earlier geological epoch, particularly during the formative growth of the coal plants, and the formation of coal; the relations of heat and climate during what is now known as the glacial epoch; the sway and influence of tidal action during the existence of ancient seas now dried up, and known to us only by their solidifled floors whereon we at this day live and walk, and build cities, and wherein we shall one day lie sepulchred and forgotten; the question of the probability of nebular condensation in the formation of worlds, and the application of such a theory to the formation of our earth; the degrees and effects of internal temperature; the possible incandescence of the centre of our globe; the conjec-gical sketch a complete account of the geology of the districts, tural earliest gaseous state of the earth;-these are the topics of intercommunity of interest which at the moment occur to us, and which associate the two grand sciences, as it were, by so many golden links; not to speak of that great law of gravitation which probably binds all worlds together, and exerts its irresistible influence over systems and spheres but dimly seen in the field of the most powerful telescope.

But, to return to our present specific subject. We commence, appropriately, as we conceive, with the more recent elementary publications on geological science. Having spoken of these, we shall be prepared in future numbers to advance further and further beyond the mere elements, and to elucidate several of those strongly attractive themes which engage the attention of accomplished geologists. No question is more frequently addressed in cultivated society to known and professed geologists than this: "What books would you recommend as the best for a beginner in the study of your science?" At least fifty times has this very question been put to ourselves; and now, imagining that our readers may be equally and justifiably inquisitive, we shall pass in review some of the books which have come before us of late, as prepared to meet and satisfy this demand.

The first thing that strikes us, in connexion with such publications, is that the older books of this kind have been almost entirely superseded. They were written when geology was scarcely a science, when speculation outran discretion, and when facts were few, and erroneously estimated. All the old "Theories of the Earth," whether by Whitehurst, Woodward, or Burnet, are exploded theories, and even Calcott on the Deluge has not been saved in the ark amidst the flood of modern books, unless a trunk may be regarded as an ark, and the inside of a trunk considered a place of refuge. All books of this class must be regarded as mere literary curiosities.

Amongst the more recent elementary works which possess a fair claim to attention, we may notice, in the first place, the publications of Mr. David Page. His Introductory Text-book to Geology was the

To such students as may be willing to pursue local research, we may commend a very recently issued Sketch of the Geology of the Counties of Gloucester and Hereford, by J. R. Leifchild, A.M. This is appended to Black's Tourist's Guide through the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, and Monmouth. A shilling or two will secure this little volume, and the student will find in the geoloparticularly that of the Cotteswold Hills, with notices of the principal fossils, and of the most productive localities, quarries, and hill sides; sections of the most important spots; plans for excur sions arranged to suit the pedestrian's convenience; and notices of the best collections of the Cotteswold fossils. Within the counties described a large proportion of the most interesting secondary strata are comprehended, while the number and beanty of fossil shells procured from the oolitic beds of the Stroud and Michinghampton district is truly remarkable. Mr. Leifchild reckons no less than 362 species of fossil testacea disinterred from the Michinghampton beds alone. We believe that no other simlar formation in Britain has yielded so many species of testaces from one neighbourhood. This neighbourhood, therefore, is one of the very best for careful investigation, to which may be added that the surrounding scenery is of the most delightful character, and diversified as delightful. Some of the valleys running through the Cotteswolds are among the prettiest on a small scale in England, and are but little visited by tourists.

A special geological topic is made the vehicle for elementary chapters in Mr. Mackie's First Traces of Life on the Earth, or the Fossils of the Bottom Rocks. We rather think we have seen the matter before in a periodical which the author edits, and on this account we are the more surprised that he should have allowed several misprints to have escaped him, and several bombastic sentences to have been reprinted. Otherwise this little book is serviceable enough to youthful beginners, and has a few fair illustrations. It is, however, curious that the real topic of the book should only be specifically treated of in its last chapters, especially as it is important enough and striking enough to warrant ample explanation and wide imaginative excursions. But to deal fairly and fully with such a topic requires a master's pen, and we have it not here. Good English is as desirable as good geology; and really they who write elementary books on any science should have first mustered elementary books on English composition. Metaphors should be chaste, yet it is hardly so to

bid us "watch how the merry, dancing waves, as they ebb away
from the shore, with playful dalliance leave the impress of their
last kisses upon the studs"! But the author is a well-meaning
man, even though it is difficult to find out his meaning in the
following sentence:-"As this granitized mass was forced up by its
own expansion, it fissured the semi-crystalline and unchanged
strata above it, dragging up, like a giant, upon its shoulders the
circumambient pasty rock, and, laminating, streaking, and con-
torting it in the squeeze and jam of its intermural expression,
produced its ribboned-structured mica-schist and gneiss." Now
If anybody will explain this process we will thank him. Much of
such "intermural expression" as this would soon lead us to an
extramural cemetery! Mr. Mackie can do better, and can hardly
write worse than this. If he will be content with simplicity, he
may do good service yet.
Of books intended to be elementary, but not really so, we will
mention one of somewhat recent date, though older than the others
just characterized. We allude to Juke's Manual of Geology, a
volume of goodly yet convenient size. It is a still more advanced
text-book than that of Mr. Page, and it is more scientifically
fashioned. Mr. Jukes is well known as a good geologist, and as
one of long standing. He has, however, no special faculty for
making his science generally interesting. The book we are now
speaking of is by no means easy reading, but it is a reliable refer
ence work. The department of geology in which the author is
most at home is what is now termed physical geology, and that in
which he is least at home is paleontology.
Every professed geologist will naturally accumulate in the
course of time a number of unconnected papers, some of which he
may have contributed to periodicals, and others of which may
have formed the staple of lectures and popular readings. If a
man chooses to collect and print these, he may easily produce
such a book as Mr. Ansted has just issued under the truly appro-
priate title of Geological Gossip, or Stray Chapters on Earth and
Ocean. Stray enough these chapters certainly are; but they are
plain, easily read, and elementary enough for most persons.
They treat briefly of a number of interesting geological subjects,
and, if a reader prefers gossip to study, and easy reading to close
thinking, he may peruse this little volume without much loss of
time, and be enabled himself to gossip geologically for two or
three days to any one whom he can persuade that he has really
studied the science, or any one good book about it.

Of the author we may observe that his first books were worthy of him, and really did him credit, but from the period of their publication he seems to have issued works of which we can only say that they have grown

"Small by degrees, and miserably less."

It is much easier to denude and disintegrate a reputation,-to use geological terms,-than to keep it in force and to add to it by still worthier efforts. To descend from the position of a man of science to a mere scientific gossip, is not pleasant to one's friends, nor ultimately profitable to one's self.

Thus far have we glanced at most of the clementary works on our science which have appeared so recently as to justify our title. With other works on geology, both popular and technical, we shall deal on future occasions, and probably treat in connexion with them, on special geological subjects,-affording to our readers such information as may interest them generally, and rob the path of science of some of its ruggedness.

its contemplation. Nor does this apply simply to the inorganic part of nature. The organic kingdoms, with their superiority of form and their wondrous endowment of life, are now known to stretch back in their existence through periods which even imagination fails to fathom. Animals of various kinds have lived and died myriads of ages ago, and the vestiges of their mortality are still preserved in those old rocks that have recently disclosed So many secrets. Plants of every grade and every shape have filled the earth with a luxurious vegetation thousands of times over, each to flourish in its turn, and at last to return to the soil and fix its impress there for the generations of men to observe and philosophize upon a million of ages afterwards. Sea, and air, and earth have each been inhabited, innumerable times over, with various forms of living things whose whole race has perished in the lapse of ages, to give place to others, who, in their turn, should also disappear. All this the merest tyro in science now knows, and no one can be found bold enough to dispute it. One reserve and one only has been up to the present placed upon this doc trine. Amongst organic beings, man, it has been held, is of recent origin. Between six and seven thousand years ago his superior organization made its appearance on the globe after an indefinite series of centuries had been spent in preparing the way for his coming, and the earth for his habitation.

Within the last few years facts have been brought to light, however, which, if insufficient to demonstrate that the human race has existed on the earth for a longer period than is generally imagined, at least are calculated to somewhat modify the views at present entertained with respect to this matter. Statements have recently been put forth on this subject which, although they may not be deemed conclusive, are certainly deserving of candid investigation and mature consideration, both from the well-known standing of the men from whom they have issued, and also from the number and magnitude of the facts upon which they appear to be based. That man is the very last creation that has yet appeared there can be no kind of doubt; the perfection of his organization, his position at the very top of the scale of animate beings, and the absence of his remains at least from the early rocks,-all point to a comparatively modern origin. But that no traces of him existed till within six or seven thousand years ago, may fairly be open to question.

The principal argument relied upon in support of the commonly accepted theory, has been the entire absence of human fossils even from the most recently formed deposits. Bones of human beings, it is admitted, have been often found; but always under such circumstances as allowed of their having found their way to the spot where they are discovercd, at a very recent date, by some sudden and violent change taking place in the locality. Even as early as 1748, a human body in a fossilized condition was discovered at Gibraltar by some miners employed in blowing up "rocks, for the purpose of raising batteries, about fifty feet above the level of the sea." It is not at all surprising that, at that time, it excited no interest. Much more recently, a fossil human pelvis was picked up by Dr. Dickeson, at Natchez; but any argument, based upon it, for the antiquity of the race, was at once disposed of by Sir Charles Lyell, who suggested that it had fallen from an Indian graveyard at the summit of the cliff. The same explanation was given of the discovery of a human skull, with other fossils, in a sandstone rock at Brazil; though, in this case, the difficulty of such a supposition was greater, because the place where it was found must have sunk to the bottom of the sea subsequently, and again have been raised to the position in which it was then observed.

Supposing an entire absence, as far as our knowledge extends, of human fossils from the most recent deposits, it still becomes a very important question whether the assumption that man did not live at the period when these deposits were formed, be not somewhat illogical and unjustifiable. It must be remembered that, in the days of Cuvier, no fossil remains of monkeys had been discovered, and that the great naturalist himself looked upon their absence as a proof of recent origin. Now, fossil quadrumanes have since been found in England, France, India, and South America; and although the number at present brought to light is certainly not large, yet it is clearly sufficient to prove that these animals existed at a period much earlier than was previously imagined. Those discovered in England are stated by Sir Charles Lyell to belong to the genus Macacus, and to an extinct species, and have been exhumed from the London clay, associated with crocodiles, turtle, and nautili. Cuvier's conclusions were probably correctly drawn from his data, but his premises were wrong. So that if no human fossils had been at present discovered, it still would not follow that there are none such deposited in the wide range of unexplored strata, to be brought to light by future industry and perseverance.

THE ANTIQUITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. THE course of science is ever onward. Discoveries are continually being made, which are not only in themselves startling and calculated to revolutionize all our previous opinions, but which prepare the way for revelations even more marvellous than themBelves, and such as had they been but hinted at a few centuries ago, would have been treated as the most extravagant speculations of a madman, or the dream of an Arab poet revelling in the regions of fancy and romance. So many long cherished theories have already given place to sounder and more correct views of nature, through the instrumentality of experiment and induction, that the human mind becomes in a manner prepared at any moment to unlearn the results of years of tuition, at the signal given by some known worshipper in the temple of science. A few years ago, when the grand truths of geology first made themselves felt amongst the students of nature, the non-scientific world stood aghast at the boldness of the theories propounded, and the novelty of the facts upon which these theories were based. A quarter of a century later these doctrines had become universally recognised; all previous opinions regarding the chronology of the earth had been hurried away into the limbo of exploded hypotheses; and geology had found its way into the education lists of the most elementary schools. Young ladies talked learnedly of rocks and fossils, and geological implements became as well known as children's toys. The pulpits resounded with the new truths of the great antiquity of the world, and the press lent its aid in the diffusion of scientific knowledge. The statement of the Rev. Dr. Lightfoot, that the heavens and the earth were created exactly at six o'clock on Sunday morning, in the month of September, at the equinox of the year B.C. 4004, was very correctly looked upon as being quite akin to some of the whimsical theories which the schoolmen amused themselves by discussing during the middle ages. The astronomer had said that there were stars so distant in the infinity of space, that since their creation a sufficient time hadnised. This evidence may be divided into two kinds. In the not elapsed to bring their light to our own small planet, and the geologist now proclaimed that the human imagination might wander back over periods vieing in duration with the distances of the heavenly bodies, and still be myriads of ages from that point in eternity when creation woke into being. The firm old earth upon which we tread all recognise now as having commenced her career in a period so remote that human thought is paralyzed in

Moreover, there can be little doubt that large numbers of animals have lived on the earth and have passed away, leaving behind them no trace of their ever having been in existence. But for the plastic nature of the sand on the river's brink in the Connecticut Vale, the colossal birds which, at one period, wandered up and down beside the stream, would have disappeared, without leaving to subsequent generations the slightest record of their being. Some of these birds were at least twelve or fifteen feet high; their footprints on the sand are all that remain of them.

Still, as no deductions can be drawn but from what is known, it may not be amiss to glance at the discoveries that are believed by many to contain positive evidence of the existence of the human race, at an earlier period than has been generally recogfirst place, there are the direct remains of man himself, seid to have been met with in different parts of the world; and, secondly, the traces of human labour, in the form of knives, arrows, and other productions of art, manufactured generally from flints. To these a third kind of proof has been added by some, more as a support to the others than as containing much evidence in itself,viz., that derived from the study of monuments, inscriptions.

which must have elapsed since the last submersion of the site of the city:-" He divides the history of this period into three eras: 1. The era of colossal grasses, trembling prairies, &c., as seen in the lagoons, lakes, and sea-coast. 2. The era of the cypress basins. 3. The era of the present live oak platform.” Existing trees, he maintains, show that the development occurred in this order. It is, then, supposed that the elevation has taken place at about five inches in a century, that being the most rapid rate at which the accumulation of detritus in the Nile has ever been computed to have taken place. This will give 1,500 years for the era of aquatic plants, before the appearance of the first cypress forest. Estimating the cypress trees at ten feet in diameter, Dr. Dowler concludes that their age would be about 5,700 years. "Though many generations of such trees may have grown and perished in each cypress period," he "has assumed only two consecutive growths," giving 11,400 years. "The maximum age of the oldest tree growing on the live oak platform is estimated at 1,500 years." The following table is arrived at:

Era of aquatic plants
Era of cypress basin
Era of live oak platform

Total

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YEARS.

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1,500

11,400

1,500

14,400

Dr. Dowler then goes on to reckon ten other such elevations, which he supposes may have taken place, each of equal duration, yielding 158,400 years. The skeleton of a man, together with burnt wood, was discovered at the excavations for the gas works, "at the depth of eighteen feet," and "beneath the roots of a cypress tree belonging to the fourth forest level." "The type of the cranium was that of the aboriginal American race." Reckoning, then, the present era at 14,100 years, and allowing for three other eras of equal duration, that skeleton must have been deposited 57,600 years ago, while a luxuriant flora must have adorned the country 100,000 years earlier.

etc., many of which date their origin prior to the commencement of the historic period. Generally speaking, human fossils have been found in large caves which occur in the calcareous strata. These ossuaries, or bone caverns, are met with in the diluvium or drift. Their floors are covered with a layer of diluvial clay, and over this a crust of stalagmite has become deposited subsequently. Under this twofold covering of lime and clay, the bones of innumerable animals, some of which have long since disappeared from among the living tribes, are met with; and, intermingled with these, have been found the fossil remains of man. The Kirkdale cave, discovered in 1821, about twenty-five miles from York, and referred to by Dr. Buckland in his Reliquie Diluriana, affords an excellent illustration. It is situated on the declivity of a valley, and occurs in the formation called oolite. It opens by an irregular, narrow passage, for a distance of 250 feet into the hill, and, at the end, expands into small chambers. The layer of stalagmite which covered the floors, -and which has been formed by drippings from the roof,-has beneath it a bed of sandy micaceous loam, of about two or three feet in thickness. In the lower part of this layer, innumerable bones were discovered, belonging to the tiger, bear, wolf, weasel, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, deer, water-rat, and mouse, most of them of extinct species. Dr. Buckland concluded that this cave had been inhabited by hyenas, and that the greater number of the remains of animals found there had been dragged in to serve the occupants of the cave as food; and that, in some cases, the hyenas had even preyed upon each other. Other bones, especially the smaller ones, he supposed to have drifted in by the current, or to have fallen into the chasm through fissures since closed up by the incrustations of stalactite. This may serve as a general description of a bone cavern; and the explanation hazarded by the late lamented Dean of Westminster, if accepted as satisfactory, effectually gets rid of any evidence of the great antiquity of the human race arising from the discovery of fossil remains of man in such a place. In the cave of Durfoil, in the Jura, situated in a calcareous mountain 300 feet above the level of the sea, human bones were discovered by Mascel de Serres, in a true state of fossil, and embedded in a calcareous matrix. The Rev. Mr. M'Enery collected flint knives and human bones from the caves of Torquay, where he discovered them amongst the remains of many extinct animals. In the Brixham cavern, Devonshire, human bones were found which had been evidently gnawed by hyenas. M. de Cuslobles discovered, and M. de Sevres afterwards examined, remains of humanity intermingled with those of the rhinoceros, bear, hyena, and other animals, embedded in mud whinstone rock, at Pondres. A fossil human skeleton, dug out of the schist rock at Quebec, is still preserved in the museum of that town; whilst the Guadaloupe skeleton, in the British Museum, is familiar to every one. In the "Caverne de Engihoul," examined by Dr. Schmerling, the bones of man occurred with those of extinct species of animals, and appeared to have found, their way there at the same peried and under similar circumstances. Tiedmann exhumed human bones from the caverns in Belgium, mixed with those of bears, hyenas, elephants, wild boars, and horses. The cave of Gailenruth, in Franconia, and those of Zahuloch and Kuloch, yielded the same products; and their great elevation place them beyond the reach of partial inundations. Many other cases of a similar kind might be quoted, all seeming to prove the same fact. To the whole of them it is, however, objected, that notwithstanding the circumstances under which these human remains appeared to have been deposited, still they There is one method by means of which some slight clue may be obtained to the age of a bone, not perhaps a very decisive one when we have to deal with such extended periods as geology brings before us, but one which still may be of some value; at all events it may be taken for what it is worth. It consists in treating the bone with dilute muriatic acid, which has the effect of dissolving the earthy portion, and leaving behind simply the gelatinous, or animal part. If a very recent bone be subjected to the action of this agent, the earthy matter is removed, and the animal part, which comprises about one-third of the whole bone, still preserves the original shape, but is flexible and elastic; so much so, that in the case of a rib, a knot may be tied in it. If, on the other hand, the bone be fossil, and, from the length of time it has been exposed, has lost its gelatinous matter, the muriatic acid will dissolve it entirely away, with effervescence. Now, in some of the cases already quoted, this test was applied both to the human and the other bones, the result arrived at being, that the time of deposit of both was as nearly the same as could be discovered. Numerous instances are recorded by Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith, in which the bones of man were discovered, broken and worked up with those of the lower animals in the same breccia, where the strictest che-gation, and strict veracity, yet might, perhaps, be suspected of mical examination could detect no difference in age. In America, some very remarkable discoveries have taken place, which, if not conclusive, are, at all events, deserving of the most unbiassed consideration. There is one in particular, described in Nott and Gliddon's Types of Mankind, of the skeleton of a man found in the delta of the Mississippi, where, according to the conclusion arrived at in that work, it must have been reposing for a period of about fifty-seven thousand years. This supposition is arrived at as follows:-In excavating on the plain upon which the city of New Orleans is built, successive growths of cypress trees are met with. Such obstacles do these present to digging to any depth, that on one occasion the Irish spadesmen relinquished their work, and the Kentucky axe-men had to be employed to hew their way downwards. Ten distinct cypress forests have been traced, by Messrs. Dickeson and Brown, at different levels below the present surface; they are arranged vertically above each other, and on the surface over them all stand stately oaks, that have flourished for centuries. Between the growth of each of these ten cypress forests the plain must have been submerged, the soil on which the next forest was to grow being deposited during the submersion. Dr. Bennet Dowler makes a calculation as to the period

were of recent date.

Exception will reasonably enough be taken to this calculation, as it is based on so much that is hypothetical; still, the bare fact of human remains being found at such a depth, and under the roots of the cypress trees,-where they could not have found their way by means of a current, or any other accidental agency, at least except at a very remote period,-will go far towards proving the great antiquity of the human race, even to those who may feel disposed to dispute the statistics of Dr. Dowler. A far more satisfactory, and more moderate, calculation has been made by the celebrated Agassiz, with regard to human "jaws with perfect teeth, and portions of a foot," discovered by Count F. de Pourtales, upon the shores of Lake Monroe, in Florida. Professor Agassiz entered elaborately into the matter in a lecture delivered at Mobile, in 1853, and arrived at the conclusion that 10,000 years ago, at the lowest computation, mankind peopled that large continent. The second argument is, perhaps, equally important, and is certainly not less conclusive, being based on the discovery of the workmanship of man in positions that indicate its having been buried at a period prior to the historical epoch. As early as 1797 a memoir was published by Mr. John Frere, in which there is mention made of the discovery of some flint implements, in a bed of gravel, at Floxen, Suffolk, together with the bones of an animal now presumed to have been the mimoth. A series of most important discoveries of this kind were afterwards made by M. Boucher de Perthes. This celebrated archologist pursued his researches for a great number of years at St. Acheul, near Abbeville, in the South of France, and succeeded in satisfying himself that in the flint implements he discovered, there came to light the last vestiges of the handiwork of a people who inhabited Western Europe at a period long antecedent to that to which any written record refers. No doubt can now possibly be felt, by any one investigating the matter, that the workmanship of man has been met with in the diluvian drifts amongst the detritus of older rocks, masses of sand and gravel, and bones of those extinct quadrupeds generally supposed to belong to an epoch prior to the creation of the human race. M. Boucher made numerous excavations in the departments of the Somme, the Pas de Calais, the Oise, the Seine, and the Seine Inferieure; and although no human fossil rewarded his researches, he found what were, perhaps, equally important,-utensils, weapons, figures, symbols, and other traces of human ingenuity,-buried with the remains of elephants and mastodons, at a depth where no traces of man had been previously suspected. In Celtic and Gaulish burial-places he discovered successive beds of bones and ashes, with cinerary urns, belonging to a period immensely remote. Nor do these discoveries now depend simply on the judgment of M. Boucher, who, although a man of great scientific knowledge, patient investileaning too much to his favourite hobby. Others have now followed him into the same field. Dr. Rigollot, a celebrated French geologist, after a careful investigation of the whole subject, expressed his concurrence in the views of his predecessor in the inquiry as to the age of the gravel,-the only point open to doubt, since the fact that the implements were found there, was universally admitted. Dr. Rigollot, in a letter to M. Boucher, dated the 29th of November, 1853, declares his assent to the opinion of the latter, that it was now clearly proved that the country had been inhabited by human beings before "the grand disturbance that caused the destruction of the elephants and rhinoceroses that lived there. Others followed in the same field; and no longer ago than the 26th of May, last year, Mr. Prestwich read a memoir before the Royal Society upon the results of his own examinations. He confesses that he entered upon the subject full of doubt, but that, having examined the matter, his conclusions were the same as those of M. Boucher. The gravel beds of St. Acheul he describes as "cap

better than one huge swamp,-are usually so covered with aquatic plants ** The lagoons of this part of America,-which is for the most part little tall grasses as to resemble prairies.

AUG. 1860.

REGISTER.

ping a low chalk hill,"-"100 feet above the level of the Somme." At the top were ten or fifteen feet of brick-earth, containing coins, old tombs, etc., but destitute of organic remains. Then came from two to eight feet of whitish marl and sand, full of recent shells, etc.; and underneath this, a layer of coarse flint gravel, of from six to twelve feet in thickness, the whole deposit resting on chalk. Now, it was in neither of the upper layers, but in the gravel below, that these flint implements were found in great numbers, and intermingled with the teeth and bones of the elephant, ox, deer, and horse.

As to the age of this gravel there is no dispute. It is of the same period as that at East Croydon, Wandsworth, and many other places surrounding London, and dates back to a time long antecedent to that at which it is usually supposed the human race commenced its career upon the earth. MM. Herbert and Bateaux, French geologists, who have made the tertiary deposits a subject of special study, examined carefully the position of these beds, and reported that the implements were found "exclusively in the true diluvian,-that is, the deposit which contains the remains of species belonging to the epoch immediately preceding the cataclysm by which they were destroyed. There cannot," they add, "be the smallest doubt as to the point."

These implements consist of arrow-heads, knives, spear-heads, axes, religious emblems, symbols, etc., and bear a very striking resemblance to those discovered by Mr. Squier in the western mounds of America. Many of them appear to have been so slightly fixed to their cases as to become detached whenever a blow was struck, and would therefore have been left in the wound. They are not always made of flint, but sometimes of granite, porphry, basalt, serpentine jasper, and almost every kind of hard stone.

The conclusion, then, appears obvious, unless some other explanation of these facts should hereafter be suggested, that man has existed on the earth much longer than we had been hitherto led to suppose. After all, this is but bringing us to the Chevalier Bunsen's theory, derived from sources of an entirely different character, "that a concurrence of facts and traditions demands for the Noachian period about ten millennia before our era, and for the beginning of our race another ten thousand years, or very little more." It is very difficult to ascertain upon exactly what grounds the Chevalier has arrived at this conclusion; but it is a conclusion very much in accordance with the results to which science seems to be leading us.

A third class of evidence was alluded to above, namely, that arising from the study of monuments and other works of art. This is perhaps more valuable taken in conjunction with the geological Stonehenge stands as a facts than as an independent guide. familiar example of a record of a very remote past,-no one knows how remote; but the lesson that it teaches is anything but definite and clear. Throughout Europe many other monuments of a simiThey were lar character exist. Call them Celtic or Druidical,-but what does that mean? That they were erected by those races? not. The ancient Druids may have used them for religious worship, but were in all probability as ignorant of their origin as we of the present generation are. Their early history is shrouded in obscurity, and we can learn little of them, further than that they have withstood the ravages of time for many centuries.

In Egypt perhaps the prospect is clearer, clouds having recently
broken and passed away; but even there we can learn little ex-
cept by the aid of physical science. True, there stand those
mighty monuments of the past, seemingly as eternal as the globe
itself, the Pyramids; but a long interval must have elapsed
after Egypt became inhabited by human beings ere such works
It must have taken many
as these could have been erected.
centuries before a race of savage or nomadic tribes could have
reached by self-tuition such a degree of civilization as would
enable them to raise such enduring proofs of their skill. There
is, therefore, a wide blank in chronology between the date at
which Egypt was first inhabited by man, and that of the origin of
the pyramids and tombs in the fourth Mephite dynasty,-accord-
ing to Lepsius, 3500 years B.C. From the year 3893 B.C., every-
thing appears tolerably clear from the monuments and hiero-
glyphics; but before that time there is nothing but physical
science to guide us.

Mr. Leonard Horner has thrown much light upon this subject.
He made nineteen borings into the Nile mud near the site of the
ancient city of Memphis, and seventy-eight other borings in other
parts of the delta of the Nile. It had been previously computed
that the deposit of Nile sediment had taken place at the rate of
about five inches in a century; but, by measuring carefully the
depth at which a certain statue of known date was buried, Mr.
Horner found that the rate must be reduced to three and a-half
inches per century, at least for the neighbourhood of Memphis,-
and yet in this neighbourhood fragments of burnt pottery, pieces
of carved stone, and other human remains, were brought up from
a depth of thirty-nine feet, and must thus, on Mr. Horner's calcu-
lation, have been buried not less than 13,000 years. In other
parts of the delta of the Nile silmilar remains have been found at all
depths down to seventy feet, borings deeper than seventy feet not
Many of these fragments of human
having yet been made.
workmanship were obtained from levels below the low-water
mark of the Mediterranean, and must therefore have been
"brought down by the river from the higher and inhabited part
of the valley, at a time previous to the formation of that part of the
delta," thus seeming to prove that the higher parts of the valley
of the Nile were inhabited by civilized men before the sites of
Bome of what we have been accustomed to regard as amongst
the most ancient of the Egyptian cities had yet emerged from
beneath the waters of the Mediterranean! After all, therefore,
the assertion of Plato, put into the mouth of an Egyptian priest,
may underrate rather than overrate the antiquity of the Egyptian
nation:-"And the annals even of our own city (Sais) have been
preserved 8,000 years in our sacred writing. I will briefly describe
the laws and most illustrious actions of those states which have

"And you will, by observ-
existed 9,000 years."-The Timæus.
ing, discover that what have been painted and sculptured there
(in Egypt) 10,000 years ago, and I say 10,000 years not as a
word, but as a fact,-are neither more beautiful nor more ugly
than those turned out of hand at the present day, but are worked
off according to the same art."-The Laws. Plato's assertions on
this point have long been disregarded, in consequence of their
supposed extravagance. Time may prove them to be quite within
the bounds of truth.

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