those delightful shawls and articles of hosiery with which we are acquainted, and these the women carry to certain dealers to dispose of; but here it is alleged, truly or falsely, that, by ways and means, these workers are induced almost invariably to take payment in goods consisting in great part of gay cotton prints, showy ribbons, and other articles of female dress or finery, not always well adapted either to their position or to their humid climate. Another favourite commodity for which their worsted work is exchanged is tea; and it is well known that high-priced tea is the great temptation which the Shetland women are unable to resist, tea-totalism in Shetland being often as much of a vice as it is thought a virtue elsewhere. When the dealers with whom the family has to do are all connected with the landlord or the land, the case becomes extremely complicated, and a further cause of mischief arises, as the Shetlander seldom or never has a lease, or will accept of one, and is thus under the constant fear of being ejected if he thwarts the proprietor or his representative in any of his transactions. It thus happens that a Shetland family may be industrious in all its branches-farming and fishing, and knitting to the best of their ability, and yet will be constantly behind hand, dependent upon their superior, and never perhaps handling a pound note from year's end to year's end. The dealers, on the other hand, are said to make large profits, at least at times; but whether on the whole they are great gainers it is not easy to tell, as the state of their transactions has never fully been brought to light. I am far from saying that all, or even the majority, of the landowners are mixed up in these transactions; but the system is so well established that it is difficult to keep free of it. This is certainly not a very good state of things. It has been said that the very boys when they begin to work for wages get no money, but are supplied with clothes, including specially a coat to go to church in, and thus they get very early into the merchant's books, so that perhaps it is not much of an exaggeration to say that a Shetlander is under truck from his cradle to his coffin. Much clamour and complaint have been excited by these pictures, and loud demands are made for stringent and special legislation. It is quite right that full inquiry should be made into the facts; but I confess I have little hope of seeing the evil cured by Act of Parliament. It would be preposterous to enact that no tenant who was starving should be assisted with advances except in money, or that no girl should exchange her woollen manufacture for a cotton print; nor, in like manner, would it be practicable to say that a tenant should not pay his rent in cattle or in fish. The evil lies deeper than this, viz., that the Shetlanders are trying to carry on the business of farming and of fishing without the necessary means. If the steed has to wait for his food till the grass grows he will probably starve; and so will the farmer come to grief if he has not something laid by to live upon between seed-time and harvest. It is the possession or the want of the capital that makes the great difference between master and servant, farmer and labourer. The man who cannot wait till the fruits of his labour or industry are realized, ought naturally to be a servant, and ought to receive wages or support independently of results; but in so doing he must forego the right to claim those profits which are to compensate for risk and delay. If the farmer or fisher insists on going on on his own account without any means-and it is plain that the Shetlander's feelings or habits are adverse to his becoming a servant-it is certain that he must become a borrower, and he will not get aid from any lender without ample remuneration. That remuneration may be got either by charging high interest, or, as they do in Shetland, by making their advances in such a form and manner as will yield them a mercantile profit. This system has been so long established in Shetland, that the people are in a great degree reconciled to it, and its extirpation seems scarcely possible. I think that if I were a resident Shetland proprietor, I would rather let the system go on, but endeavour that it should be so administered as to do justice to both parties, in the hope that by degrees a spirit of independence and fair dealing might grow up. I must say that I am very incredulous of any dealers getting, in this or in any other way, an exorbitant profit in the long run. For if that were the case, competition would be evoked, and one dealer would bid down or bid up the market till it reached a fair rate or return.

Pauperism.

I should regret if this Meeting should pass away without something being done

to bring before us in a precise shape the comparative principles and practical operations of the poor laws in England, Scotland, and Ireland-a subject undoubtedly of great interest and importance. In connexion with the subject of pauperism, one of the most important elements for consideration relates to private charity. It is certain that an enormous sum of money is annually distributed in that way throughout the kingdom, and it is equally certain that the good done bears little proportion to the amount given. It cannot be too much inculcated upon men's minds that the givers of indiscriminate charity are practically to be classed among the most mischievous enemies of the poor. The direct tendency of what they do is to tempt and encourage the poor to become hypocrites and impostors, to paralyze their industry, and to undermine their self-respect and self-reliance. It is false to call such expenditure by the name of charity. A great deal of it doubtless proceeds from feelings of true benevolence; but how much of it is prompted by other motives? The desire to do as others do, the wish to avoid the unpleasant sight of distress, real or apparent, the inability to resist importunity, the superstitious idea that it is a duty to give a portion of our means in the name of alms, without regard to the effect produced, just as the Pharisees were scrupulous to pay tithes down to the lowest article. Protestants are in the habit of reproaching Catholics with the importance they attach to mere good works; but that fault is not confined to Catholics, but is deeply seated in human nature. The false notion of expiating sins, or of propitiating Divine favour by some self-sacrifice that is perhaps easily made, prevails in all sects. A story was current some time ago of a man belonging to a very anti-Catholic sect, who had become rich by very questionable means, and who, when on his death-bed, asked his minister whether, if he gave £10,000 to the church, it would improve his prospects in the other world. The cautious and conciliatory answer was, that it was impossible to guarantee any such matter, but that it seemed an experiment well worth trying. No such liberality, whether in one's life-time or on death-bed, deserves the name of charity. There can be no charity unless there is the desire to do good to the recipient; and there can be no enlightened charity that does not seek to carry out that wish in the right way, by making careful inquiry as to the circumstances in which the boon is bestowed, and the effect which it is likely to have. It is not an easy task to accomplish this object; but I am glad to see that on all sides measures are being taken, by the help of associations and otherwise, to assist benevolent persons in wisely and intelligently carrying out their views. Two great considerations are here to be looked to-the real destitution of the parties to whom charity is given, and the caution that confines it mainly to casual and extraordinary causes of distress, and does not establish any resource on which the poor can rely, so as to dispense with ordinary and necessary prudence on their part."

On Sanitary Measures for Scottish Villages.

By Colonel Sir J. E. ALEXANDER, K.C.L.S., F.R.S.E.

Within the last forty years there has been a gradual improvement in many Scottish villages, which by the absence of attention to the outward and visible signs of cleanliness, exhibited great carelessness in sanitary measures. Manure-heaps are still, no doubt, not far off from the cottages; but it is the business of the sanitary officers to see that they and pigsties are not close to doors or windows. Some of our health officers are firm and do their duty, and insist on attention to sanitary rules; others again wink at irregularities, and favour particular parties to the injury of their neighbours. There is still a vast amount of ignorance both as to the necessity for pure air and water to insure good health to the community.

In visiting the cottages we still see occasionally that fever-chest called a "boxbed," in which at night a father, mother, and two or three children may be found, with the air poisoned by their breath. We still see in many cottages windows built into the wall, and quite incapable of being opened. Landlords should endeavour to remedy this evil, as it costs little to make an arrangement for admitting air through the natural channel-the window. How can we expect to find health

in a room sometimes without a fireplace, with door and window closed, and no current of air through it?

The author described some of the habits of the cottagers, and noted the improvements which are to be observed in the tidiness of their dress, and in other respects. He advocated the promotion of the taste for music, and instruction in the principles of hygiene in village schools.

On some Maxims of Political Economy as applied to the Employment of Women, and the Education of Girls. By LYDIA E. BECKER.

In regard to employments common to both sexes by which persons gain a livelihood, one rule is of almost universal application, that when men and women are engaged in the same occupation, the remuneration of women is fixed at a lower rate than that of men. In some cases this arises from actual superiority in men as men for the work, in others from the superior advantages in training which are arbitrarily given to men. In the Staffordshire potteries the higher and more elegant branches of the trade, the modelling and painting, are given to men, while women do the rough heavy work. In teaching, where the requirements from men and women are equal, and the capacity of either sex for the work the same, women are paid only about two thirds the salary of men. It is said that, as a matter of fact, a schoolmistress can be had for less money than a schoolmaster, and therefore the law of supply and demand, and the rules of political economy require that she should receive less. But while this rule of political economy is alleged as a reason for keeping down their remuneration, women find that some other rule than that of economic science is brought in to prevent them from having the benefit of the law of supply and demand when that rule would tell in their favour. In order to make it just that women should receive only the market price for their services, there ought, on the other hand, to be an open market for their labour; but women are not allowed to compete for the best paid educational posts. It is arbitrarily assumed that they cannot teach boys, therefore in this country they are shut out from the most profitable part of the teaching profession, although experience proves that women make excellent teachers of boys.

Sometimes it is alleged as a reason for the inequality between men and women's salaries, that it must be assumed that a man has a wife and family to maintain out of his income, and this is usually not the case with a woman. But this reasoning goes beyond the law of supply and demand. In calculating wages, the employer has no right to go beyond the consideration of the quality of the work demanded, and the number of competitors for the post, in the question of what the recipient of the wages means to do with the money, nor to assume that he or she cannot need such and such a sum. Women are arbitrarily shut out from many employments in which they are fully competent to engage. There has been an interposition on the part of University authorities to hinder the supply of women doctors to the demand of women patients. The rule of giving less to women than to men is applied where it cannot be excused under the plea of supply and demand. In the table of conditions under which the Government grant assurance policies and annuities, we find that a man and a woman of like age have to pay a like premium for a life assurance policy, but that if a man and a woman of like age pay a like sum for an immediate life annuity, the woman's annuity will be 7 per cent. less than that of the man. The introduction of needlework as a compulsory subject in girl's schools acts injuriously on the quality of education to be obtained in them. Boys are allowed to devote their whole school time to intellectual work, while girls are only allowed to exercise their intellectual faculties on the condition that they shall devote a considerable portion of school time to manual labour. The gulf between the intellectual attainments of the sexes is already too wide, and the impulse that is being given on all hand to the education of boys is making it wider every day. In order to accomplish the object of getting the whole people thoroughly educated, the wisest and speediest method would be to bestow the principal share of attention on that part which is confessedly behind, that of the feminine half of the nation. When the standard of education for women shall be brought up to the

level of that for men, the education of both sections of the people will advance faster than has hitherto been possible, and the combined intelligence of women and men, educated and trained to a thoughtful appreciation of the truths unfolded by a study of both natural and economic science, will be able to arrive at a solution of social and political problems which have hitherto baffled the wisest of our legislators.

On Land Tenure. By WILLIAM BOTLY.

The author introduced the subject by stating that "in treating the question he did so on principles at once tangible and practical," not on those of "The Land Tenure Reform Association," but in such a manner as he believed would materially tend to the interest of the three parties immediately concerned, and as a sequence to the well-being of the country generally. He then gave an account of the many and varied tenures by which land is held in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Prussia, the Colonies, &c., deducing their relative advantages and disadvantages. He then gave a statistical account of the counties &c., proving that leases were the exception not the rule; argued in favour of long leases (with few restrictions), showing as a rule long leases and good farming go together, whilst with few ex ceptions yearly tenancy and insecurity led to bad farming; gave a tabular statement as to the relative yield of such estates. He also advocated Tenant Right to the extent of compensation for all unexhausted improvements and beneficial outlays, instancing farms where such equitable agreements existed having trebled in value and rental.

After showing the beneficial effect on landlord, tenant, labourer, and the commonwealth, concluded by saying that physical, financial, and political benefits would arise from the general adoption of long leases, with a well-considered tenantright clause inserted therein.

Educational Hospital Reform: The Scheme of the Edinburgh Merchant Company. By THOMAS J. BOYD, F.R.S.E., Master of the Merchant Company. The scholastic institutions of the Edinburgh Merchant Company probably form the largest system of schools in Great Britain, and are the only ones yet established under the "Endowed Institutions (Scotland) Act."

The Merchant Company of Edinburgh was incorporated in 1681 by Royal Charter from Charles II. It is in a highly prosperous condition, and upwards of 300 leading merchants, bankers, and traders, in Edinburgh and Leith, are members. Since its institution, it has held a very prominent position in Scotland, and its deliberations and resolutions have not unfrequently had considerable influence on public affairs. There is a widows' fund connected with it, from which the widows of members receive a liberal annuity. The entry-money to the Company varies from about £145 to considerably upwards of £200, the exact amount being determined by the ages of applicants for admission.

The principal administration and patronage of three of the educational hospitals in Edinburgh, viz. George Watson's Hospital, the Merchant Maiden Hospital, and Daniel Stewart's Hospital, were vested in the Company, and to it were also confided the chief management and patronage of James Gillespie's Hospital for the maintenance of aged people, in connexion with which was a Free Primary School for boys. Each of these four Trusts possessed a large hospital building, in which, previous to the recent changes, the foundationers resided, and where those of the first three were also educated; and from the able and economical manner in which their respective funds have been managed, their capital stocks have very largely increased.

(I.) George Watson's Hospital was founded by George Watson, accountant to the Bank of Scotland in Edinburgh. He died in 1723, and bequeathed £12,000 to endow an hospital for the maintenance and education of boys. Those who were qualified for admission were sons and grandsons of merchants, burgesses, and guild brothers, or ministers of Old Church, preference being given to those of the name of Watson and Davidson. The income of this Trust now amounts to about £8000 a year. The number of boys educated and maintained in its hospital building be

fore the reform was eighty-six. The master, twelve assistants, and treasurer of the Merchant Company, five members of the Town Council, and one of the Established Church Clergy of Edinburgh, constitute the management.

(II.) The Merchant Maiden Hospital was founded in 1695 by the Edinburgh Merchant Company and the widow of James Hair, druggist in Edinburgh, for the maintenance and instruction of girls. The income of the Trust is about £6000 a year. Previous to the changes it had seventy-five foundationers. Those eligible for admission were the daughters or granddaughters of merchant burgesses of Edinburgh, or of ministers thereof and suburbs, or of those who have been governors of, or benefactors to, the hospital. The management is in the hands of five members of the Town Council, the Master, Treasurer, and two Assistants of the Merchant Company, three of the Clergy of the city and suburbs, the Earl of Mar, and nine persons elected by the Merchant Company-in all, twenty-two.

(III.) Daniel Stewart's Hospital was founded by Daniel Stewart, of the Exchequer, who died in 1814, leaving upwards of £13,000, to accumulate for the purpose of building and endowing an hospital for the maintenance and education of boys. Those qualified for admission were sons of honest and industrious parents of Edinburgh and suburbs, including Leith, whose circumstances in life did not enable them suitably to support and educate their children at other schools, preference being given to those of the name of Stewart or Macfarlane. The annual income of this Trust is upwards of £5000, and the number of foundationers was sixty-nine. The Master, Treasurer, and twelve Assistants of the Merchant Company constitute the management.

(IV.) The last of these institutions, James Gillespie's Hospital and Free School, was founded by James Gillespie, of Spylaw, merchant and tobacconist in Edinburgh, who, by his will dated in 1796, destined the greater part of his property to the endowment of a charitable school for boys, and of a hospital for the aliment and maintenance of old men and women. About forty aged foundationers were maintained in the hospital building. The persons qualified for admission were, the servants of the founder, or persons of his name, above the age of 55; persons belonging to Edinburgh and its suburbs above the same age; failing these, persons from Leith, Newhaven, and other parts of Mid-Lothian; whom failing, persons from any part of Scotland at the age of 55. The Free School was opened in 1803, and had about 100 boys. For some time no fees were charged, but subsequently, and until the recent reform, the pupils were made to pay a small sum per month, and this change had the effect of increasing their number, which latterly amounted to about 150. The annual income of the foundation is about £1800. The management is in the hands of the Master, twelve Assistants, and Treasurer of the Merchant Company, five members of the Town Council, and the Ministers of St. Andrew's and St. Stephen's churches.

For upwards of a quarter of a century there has been a growing feeling in Scotland against what is known as the hospital system; and, happily, people generally are now coming to believe in the truth of the saying that children should be brought up in families-not in flocks. The education of large numbers of children apart from their parents, relatives, or friends, and without their having almost any intercourse with other persons except the officials of the hospital establishments, was a system unnatural in itself, and not calculated to make them in after life useful members of society. With whatever zeal those who were so brought up might be trained morally and intellectually, many were found, on the completion of their education, to be devoid of that general intelligence which is acquired from intercourse with friends in the home circle; and when they left the hospitals to begin the business of life, they were, as a rule, unable to take their places with others whose scholastic training had not been superior, but which had been carried on under happier circumstances. Altogether, it was felt that, in return for the large sum of money expended upon them, comparatively small benefits were derived; and it was to abolish this state of things that the Scheme was devised.

The Merchant Company had for a long time been desirous of reforming the institutions referred to, and with this view they obtained, about nineteen years ago, Parliamentary authority to admit day-scholars, selected from the privileged classes, to George Watson's Hospital, to be educated gratuitously along with the founda