PART VI. THE GENERAL DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION. § 489. LITERATURE DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. LITERATURE in its most general signification means all the written productions of a nation; but in its stricter sense it comprehends only those writings which come within the sphere of rhetoric, excluding works devoted to learning and science. It is sometimes specified by the terms "elegant" or "polite" literature, or "letters." A fully equipped literature has various departments, which differ from each other in important respects, and are marked by distinct peculiarities of form and treatment. These will now be considered in the following order: 1. Description; 2. Narration; 3. Exposition; 4. Oratory; 5. Dialogue; 6. Drama; 7. Poetry. $490. OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION. Description is of two kinds, referring, first, to objects perceptible to the senses; and, secondly, to subjects cognizable by the mind. To these the names objective and subjective have respectively been given. Although such an application of these terms may be regarded as not philosophically accurate, yet it may be defended, first, because it is sanctioned by the best authority; and, secondly, because there is no other way by which the two kinds of description can be so well designated. Of these, objective description will be first considered. This refers, in the first place, to objects in a state of rest, including the works of nature and the works of man. The description of natural objects is most conspicuous in books of travel or adventure. Thus in Kane's voyages to the Arctic regions a large portion is necessarily devoted to the physical features of the places visited-the fields of ice, the vast bergs, the rugged shores, and the celestial phenomena. Livingstone's travels in Africa present the reader with striking and novel scenes encountered there. Into most narrative works description enters largely, and many narrative writers have excelled in this respect. This was the case with Sir Walter Scott, who intermingles these two kinds of composition in nearly all his works, whether prose or poetry. In William Black's Strange Adventures of a Phaeton the descriptions form the greater, if not the more important part of the book. The same thing may be found even in scientific writings, especially those which, like the works of Nichol or Proctor, appeal to the popular taste. The astronomer or the geologist may describe the phenomena of the heavens or the earth, and be enabled in this way to make his writing more agreeable, if not more perspicuous. The works of man afford a wider field for description, and are dealt with in all writings which give an account of cities or civilized countries, for here they are necessarily more important than those of nature. In general, the two-natural scenery and human handiwork-are equally regarded, and both forms of description are found to an almost equal degree in narrative writing. Thus Kinglake's Eothen refers to the works of nature and of man. In history it is often necessary to give an account of the natural features of a country, or of the scene of any event, or of the appearance of a city with whose fortunes the writer is concerned. Thus Gibbon pauses in his narrative to give an animated account of the place chosen by Constantine for his new capital, and in Prescott's histories the descriptions of the wonders of Mexico and Peru are among the most captivating, if not the most meritorious passages. Beckford's Vathek is a narrative work, in which the best parts are descriptions, such as that of the Hall of Eblis. Works of art form an excellent means for the display of descriptive power. To the sympathetic mind there is in them a suggestiveness which is greater than that of other works of man. For the artist has already endowed his work with his own conception, and the writer has but to seize this and put it into expression. Ruskin's glowing descriptions of the pictures of Turner may serve to illustrate the inspiration which may be drawn from painting; the suggestive power of architecture may be seen in the description of St. Peter's in Childe Harold; while the same poem shows the influence of sculpture upon one who can apprehend its meaning in the fervid descriptions of the Venus de' Medici, the Apollo Belvedere, the Laocoon, and the Dying Gladiator. Objective description refers in the second place to objects in a state of motion or action. This is of a higher order than the preceding kind, since it approaches to the life and activity of narrative, is more stimulating to the writer, and more influential over the reader. Under this head is comprised all movement, whether in inanimate nature or among living beings. The flow of rivers, the rush of cataracts, the struggle of ocean-billows, the war of the elements, the eruption of volcanoes, and all similar movements of natural objects form subject-matter for this kind of description. Illustrations may be found in Byron's Thunder-storm among the Alps, Coleridge's Hymn in the Vale of Chamouni, but the most sublime example is Goethe's Song of the Angels in Faust: RAPHAEL. "The sun in wonted wise is sounding GABRIEL. "And fleetly, thought surpassing fleetly The earth's green pomp is spinning round; There Paradise alternates sweetly With night terrific and profound; There foams the sea, with broad wave beating Against the deep cliff's rocky base; And rock and sea away are fleeting MICHAEL. "And storms with rival fury heaving From land to sea, from sea to land; There burning Desolation blazes, Precursor of the Thunder's way; But, Lord, thy servants own with praises THE THREE. "The sight gives angels strength, though greater And all thy wondrous works, Creator, The actions of man are more inspiring than his works, or at least more exciting. A shipwreck, as in Falconer's poem; a battle, as in Campbell's Hohenlinden; a tumultuous assembly, as in Demosthenes's account of the panic at Athens after Elatea, have formed themes for description of surpassing excellence. Milton's ode on the Nativity begins with narrative and ends with description, under the figure of vision, where the pagan deities are represented as taking their flight at the approach of the Babe of Bethlehem. Gray's Elegy begins with action, which at the close deepens into universal calm. § 491. SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION. This is of a higher order than the preceding one, and is more difficult of successful accomplishment. It includes the following: 1. All descriptions of emotions or feelings, as exhibited in the expression of the face. Thus in the case of the Apollo Belvedere, and others already mentioned, subjective description arises out of the objective: "In his eye And nostril beautiful disdain, and might The same is true with Byron's description of the Laocoon : "A father's love and mortal's agony With an immortal's patience blending." Or the Venus de' Medici: "We inhale The ambrosial aspect, which, beheld, instils Or the Gladiator: "He heard it, but he heeded not-his eyes A description of character, as seen in the face, may be found in Carlyle's representation of Cromwell and Frederick the Great. This is also a favorite practice with novelists and narrative poets. 2. The display of emotions in action forms another class, and includes the struggle of conflicting feelings in the heart; as courage against panic, love against hate, hope against despair, and the like. Satan's soliloquy in the Paradise Lost affords a representation of the struggle of remorse with hate and intellectual pride. The soliloquy of the Medea of Euripides exhibits the conflict between maternal love and an injured wife's thirst for vengeance. In that of Hamlet there is the conflict between a desire to avenge the dead and native irresolution. 3. Another class is made up of descriptions of character. These abound in biographies, but especially in autobiographies, in connection with the narrative. John Stuart Mill's autobiography is full of analytical descriptions of his varying states of mind. 4. Scientific writings afford another class in the descriptions of the various moral and intellectual qualities. § 492. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION BLENDED TOGETHER. Although these various kinds of description have been analyzed and considered separately, yet in general they are found existing together, and are sometimes inseparably connected. 1. Language has often an implied or suggested meaning, which of itself is equivalent to description. Thus the words |