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between the instinctive performances of animals, which have remained constant for ages, and the historical development of the human mind in the infinite variety of the productions of science and art, and the progressive change of the modes of life. But the principle of this psychical organism, which comprises all these mental phenomena, is the free, self-conscious will contemplating its own nature. The human individual becomes a person by self-consciousness. It is the separation of the individual from itself, without which no specific mental process is possible. The individual which is an Ego is a person. The animal has no other value but as an exemplar of its species. Man acquires a substantive value by his capacity of becoming conscious of his nature. The concrete result of this selfconsciousness is-knowing and willing. Self-consciousness, knowing, and willing, are inseparable mental processes; they condition each other, and are only realised by their uninterrupted connexion. Without self-consciousness there can be no knowledge and free will; knowing and willing are, on the other hand, the necessary results of self-consciousness. Man only, and not the brute, possesses the desire of knowledge. Self-consciousness becomes in the end selfknowledge. The mode of life of animals is still the same as described by Aristoteles. A history of animals does not exist, excepting that which refers to extinct animals. It is by new creations that a progress is effected in the animal world. A limited instinctive action cannot progress. Human liberty and the possibility of mental progress are inseparably connected. Even in the subordinate aspect of human life, the universality of human nature, and his independence of instinct, become apparent. Eating and drinking, clothing and habitation, seem natural wants. But man does not remain fixed by what is absolutely requisite. His desires, impulses, and inclinations are infinitely extended. Even in his luxuries, man exhibits his independence of instinct. The mode and manner in which he satisfies the natural wants, the vastness of his social intercourse, contribute to render natural life more humane and more spiritual. Thus, even eating and drinking are not without influence on mental development. There is no doubt that the law of historical development limits the liberty of the individual, in rendering him, to a considerable extent, dependent on the state of civilisation of his time and his people; but this liberty is only limited, not destroyed. The progress is always initiated by the individual who produces something new by his own energy, and which acquires an objective value; it becomes a contribution to the mental life of the species. It is in this productive participation in history that the liberty of man is exhibited as contradistinguished from the instinct of brutes. Man thus shows his individual substantiality, his peculiar mental endowment, not merely in accidental positions, but in the regular course of general development. (SCHALLER, Body and Soul.)

Extracts from Organon der Erkentniss der Natur und des Geistes (Organon of the Knowledge of Nature and the Mind), by CARL GUSTAV CARUS (Leipzig, 1856; Brockhaus), Origin of Language (greatly abridged). When we inquire why abstraction is absent or

nearly impossible to an animal, the cause appears to be that animals do not possess the means by which any real abstract notion can be conceived and permanently retained. This means is no other but language... In proportion as the nervous system is more developed, and animals live a cerebral life, manifested by the possibility of dreaming (observed frequently in cage-birds and dogs), the animals become more sensible of their own feelings, and express them in tones and gestures which may be termed the language of sensation, which, however, always remains perfectly subjective. Such a language is also possessed by man. Thus the infant, yet unconscious of itself, expresses by sounds and motions, its indistinct feelings, but in proportion as mental language becomes developed, this physical language is displaced. The animal acquires, however, in particular instances the capacity to understand something of the mental language of man so as to obey and even mechanically to imitate articulate sounds. This, however, is far removed from the notion of a real or mental language which can never arise without the capacity of self-consciousness, and the latter is only developed in proportion as language is developed.

At first the mind searches for sounds for purely objective conceptions, and thus the nouns (substantiva) are formed; then the qualities (adjectiva) must be expressed; and, finally, the relations in which these notions stand to each other by time-words (verba). In the formation of the first, if the object manifests itself by noise, the sounds are imitated, such as the reverberations accompanying lightning. On the whole, the number of such words is not large, and they necessarily resemble each other in most languages. In all other cases the inventive spirit of man proceeds according to thousands of different analogies, so that every people chooses different words for the same object; hence the infinite variety of languages.

The expressions equivalent for pure abstract notions appear last in any people. In order to understand how imperfect and fragmentary we must assume the beginning of a language to have been, we must examine the language of the savage or the development of speech in the child. The signs for the nearest and more important objects are first formed; mother, father, man, sun, moon, water, fire, etc. It is with such fragments that the savage and the child commences. Then are added the qualities, hot, cold, light, dark, soft, hard, green, heavy, light, etc. These are attached to the nouns: mother good, tree green, etc. Then come the sounds for actions, and it is remarkable how frequently (the languages of the native American tribes give evidence of this), connected actions are expressed in one simple word.

The designation for abstract notions come latest. It is only after the mind has acquired a great power over the designation of the higher abstract notions that it makes language itself an object, and begins not only to analyse and to determine the original sounds, but to give a form to language, i. e., to lay the foundation for its grammar.*

Every word is born as a whole in the mouth of man. It is only at a late

Man thus developes language out of himself, but it is language which reciprocally paves the way for the progress of the mind. Language may, in this sense, be said to produce thought. It is not without signification that in Greek logos has such a comprehensive meaning, and designates, besides word or discourse, also intellect, reason, and even a divine being "In the beginning was the Word" (St. John). All, in fact, what we term knowledge or science, is mainly conditioned by language. By language everything that is floating in the world is as it were sublimated and then fixed in words.

On Twins, &c. By Professor LEVY. According to statistical data there are

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Besides climate, there are organic conditions which favour multiple conceptions. Thus the author saw in a Parisian Institute a woman who, in ten deliveries, had produced nineteen children. He observed the same disposition in women belonging to the same family. The physiological cause is the impregnation of several ova either simultaneously or at short intervals. The question has been discussed whether, in super-conceptions, the ova come from one ovarium or from both ovaria. The author thinks that either may be the case, for he found in each ovarium a corpus luteum, or two of them in the same ovarium. That twins may proceed from the same ovarium is proved by women having produced twins though one ovarium was perfectly degenerated. Modern researches have also shewn that the second egg may be contained within a common Graafian follicle; even the same ovum may contain two germs. As a rule, each twin is enclosed by its own membranes, and the eggs, where they come into contact, are separated from each other by a septum. . . . . În five cases the author found that each foetus had its own amnion, but both were enclosed within the same chorion. In all cases where there was a common chorion the twins were of the same sex.

period that the understanding analyses the word into individual sounds-letters. It is one of the greatest errors in believing that, in investigating the origin of language, we must begin with individual letters.

THE

ANTHROPOLOGICAL REVIEW.

No. VII.

NOVEMBER, 1864.

NOTES ON WAITZ'S ANTHROPOLOGY.

BY CAPTAIN R. F. BURTON, V.P.A.S.L.

I HASTEN to express the satisfaction derived from the perusal of the Anthropological Society's valuable publication, the first volume of Professor Waitz's Anthropology of Primitive Peoples, in the excellent translation of Mr. J. Fred. Collingwood. My object in taking up my pen is not to criticise an author who quotes in one tome nearly 1000 authorities, but simply as a traveller to point out and rectify within the range of my personal experience where the learned Professor's citations are no longer of their original value. I anticipate a further necessity of revision in the future volumes, especially that in treating on Africa, and having observed that the confraternity of which I am a humble member, is expressly invited so to do in Pref. p. xv, I make no more apology, but plunge in medias res.

(P. 37.) Dr. Waitz does not entirely assent to D'Orbigny's assertion touching the shortening and thickening of the body trunk in High Peru. I have observed this peculiarity amongst the Mountain Affghans, and I appeal to all who have visited Tibet and Upper Mongolia if such is not notably the case, especially when comparing the natives of the plateaux with the Hindús of the plains-also in pre-historic times a Mongol race. Broca (p. 226) when classifying peoples according to physical character, rightly placed the Hindú among the Mongols. D'Omalius d'Halloy made the Hindú a mixture of white Aryan and black Aborigen (p. 232), but for the latter we must read Mongol.

(P. 40). I may remark that the demureness of the Arab boy arises from his being so much in the society of his elders. Before determining that a Negro child runs earlier than that of a European, it is always necessary carefully to learn the age. I have mistaken Negro boys of nine for five years old.

VOL. II.-NO. VII.

R

As regards the assertion "that fecundity must be very great among the Negroes of Africa, may be inferred from the enormous losses which she has suffered (without any perceptible diminution of its popu lation) by the agency of the slave trade," I have observed that the diminution wherever the slave trade was active, is still palpable. I may quote the western part of Guinea and the whole of the Slave or Benin Coast. Where now there are units there were hundreds in the days of Bosman and Barbot. Yet it is, I believe, acknowledged as a law, that after any great destruction of human life by famine, pestilence or war, the birth rate increases, and some writers have argued from this a providential and direct interference. The Negress, however, is rarely unless exceptionally and out of Africa-the mother of many children; she is also seldom barren, and as she is never an old maid, the villages swarm with young ones.

The deficient fecundity of the Americans arises from uncertainty of food and the severe bodily drudgery of the women. I have observed the contrast of the nomade and the settled Indians, although the latter are apt to die of civilised diseases-catarrh, bronchitis, consumption, etc.

(P. 46.) With regard to American colour, I have often found the exposed skin to be of a deep copper, and the covered portions a clear olive, and have conjectured that the trivial term, "Red men" comes from the first impression made by the face. On the other hand (p. 47), I know many Europeans who have lived for a long time in Guinea, and who, with a fair amount of insolation, have not become coppercoloured but Monrad has exaggerated the peculiarities of Guinea. I do not find the Negroes of the Gold Coast more gluttonous than their neighbours; indeed, they are mostly fish eaters. And if "Europeans who visit this region preserve their good appetite," which is not the case (p. 60), it is a pity to waste the blessing where we can get so little wherewith to gratify it.

(P. 42.) The rule given by Dr. Livingstone touching the Negro tint of which D'Orbigny advocates the opposite-is that it is darkest in regions of damp heat. But descent greatly, if not wholly, modifies this; e. g. in Bonny Town, West Africa, once a great centre of slavery, there are many men light coloured as mulattoes. Yet the climate is what the Delta of the Niger alone can shew. I quote one of many, and shall return to the subject in commenting upon p. 172.

(P. 43.) I have never seen a Rohilla resembling an Icelander; they are magnificent animals, like the Spanish Contrabandista, some of them models of Jew-like beauty. Niguet certainly describes an Albino. The Affghans, east of the Indus, are mixed with Indian blood; those bordering on Iran with Persian, hence they "exhibit all shades of

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