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that memory is more treacherous than direct observation. But, if so, it may be answered that we can confirm our own past experience by experiments on other individuals. We may interpret, and we do interpret their words and actions by reference to our own past states of consciousness.

There is one very curious addition to Professor Bain's definition of mind, which we do not consider by any means an ornament to the second edition of his work. We are obliged to bring it in abruptly and àpropos de rien, because it has really no connexion whatever with any part of his system.

"Mind," he says, in the first page, "is commonly opposed to Matter, but more correctly to the external world. These two opposites define each other. To know one is to know both. The external or object world is distinguished by the property called extension, which pertains both to resisting matter, and to unresisting, or empty space. The internal, or the subject world, is our experience of everything not extended; it is neither matter nor space. A tree, which possesses extension, is a part of the object world; a pleasure, a volition, a thought, are facts of the subject world, or of mind."

The object of this definition is "to comprehend in a few words, by some apt generalisation, the whole kindred of mental facts, and to exclude everything of foreign character." But we submit that the object is not attained by raking up this old distinction, which is almost, if not quite, meaningless. Any relation between any two bodies is as truly unextended as mind is. A line one inch long is to a line five inches long as one to five; a line five inches long is to a line twenty-five inches long as one to five also; but who can say that the relation between either pair of lines is of any given length-that it is extended. And so, according to the definition, any given object is a part of the external world; any of its relations to other objects is part of the internal, or subject, world. We must confess ourselves unable to see that the relation between any two objects is a part of the subject world if we assume that the objects themselves are not a part of that subject world. The perception of the relation is a part of the subject world certainly, but then so is the perception of the two objects themselves. It seems to us that the distinction is about as useful to the psychologist as the distinction between vegetable forms and non-vegetable relations would be to the botanist. "Vegetables," he might say, "inhale carbonic acid and exhale oxygen, but botany does neither the one nor the other; the relation between a vegetable and a vegetable is not itself a vegetable, and so at one coup we have separated vegetables and the science which treats of them." Sheer nonsense all this of course, but no more nonsense than the distinction

of the object-world and the subject world by the terms extended and unextended.

We were for a long time puzzled to conjecture why Professor Bain, who says elsewhere, "no currents no mind," should disfigure the first page in his book with such a curious piece of patch-work as this. There are some passages which lead us to believe that Prof. Bain has a very strong sense of humour, and we suspect that this little vagary is intended as a quiet joke; if so, it is certainly an excellent joke. Professor Bain is probably as well acquainted as any one with the words Horace uses when ridiculing an unequal work of art,

"Purpureus, late qui splendeat, unus et alter
Assuitur pannus."

which might be freely translated, "Professor Bain has tacked on a theological patch or so to cover a multitude of scientific sins," i. e. sins regarded from a certain theological point of view. The humour lies in the cool audacity of assuming that one page, to which attention is called in the preface, will cover the nakedness of 639 other pages. The proportion is really not that of a fig-leaf to the human form. But Professor Bain has perhaps met men as easily satisfied as the vice-principal of a college at Oxford, who, when informing a pupil that he was to be presented with books of a certain value to be chosen by the pupil himself, said, "Now choose whatever you like; no restriction whatever; but be sure you get good bindings; no half calf, you know, whole calf, mind, whole calf, whole calf."*

Whether it be worth while to conciliate the small fry of uneasy theologians at this price we very much doubt. It must be always borne in mind that the earnest believer has no fear of the truth, and is on the side of the man of science. He is persuaded that he has the true religion, and that truth can never hurt it; and he knows that if men of science take the wrong path for a time, they will ultimately find out their mistake and turn back again. Had men of such a stamp been in certain high quarters, we should not recently have witnessed the most ludicrous of all spectacles-Infallibility afraid of facts, and scenting Schism in the very name of Science. A true believer no more thinks it necessary to bolster up his faith at every turn, than a true gentleman thinks it necessary to tell everybody he meets that he is a gentleman. If, then, religion has an enemy in these days, that enemy is not the conscientious man of science, but the fidgety theologian.

Fact within our knowledge.

The Home and Foreign Review, an ably conducted publication, which treated scientific subjects from a Roman Catholic point of view, recently received a hint to commit suicide, and committed it accordingly.

But to return to Professor Bain. We have to express our regret that we have found it necessary to differ from him on some points; and we regret it the more, because controversy takes up very much space, and assent very little. But, in the main, we consider the three works, The Senses and the Intellect, The Emotions and the Will, and The Study of Character, to be a most valuable contribution to the Science of Mind, perhaps the most valuable that has yet appeared. Differences of opinion there always must be in every science that has not become exact.. But there is one point in which, above all others, we agree with him, and that is, in his estimate of the value of that haute école of mental gymnastics, Mental Science. Like all other sciences, it gratifies, perhaps we ought at present rather to say excites, our natural curiosity; it serves to explain differences in the intellectual character of different individuals; and, above all, it is only through it that we can arrive at a rational system of education.

THE GIPSIES IN EGYPT.*

BY ALFRED VON KREMER.

EXCEPTING the Jews there is no people so scattered over the earth as the gipsies. Homeless and yet everywhere at home, they have preserved their physiognomy, manners, and language. Everywhere they support themselves as tinkers, musicians, fortune-tellers, and everywhere have they but loose notions concerning the rights of property. Whilst in Europe it is only in Hungary and Spain where the gipsies still exhibit all their peculiarities, inasmuch as elsewhere they present the varnish of civilisation; Egypt is the classical soil of the East, which shows them in their primitive form.

The Turks and the Persians denominate this remnant of a people thingāneh, a term expressing the greatest contempt. It is, however, remarkable, that in Arab-countries this designation is altogether unknown. There are a great number of gipsies in Syria, where they are known by the Arabic name, Nuwar, and are looked upon as an Arab tribe of the Beni-Nuwar. In Egypt they are called Ghagar. The name Nuwar is also understood in Egypt; but in Upper Egypt

* Translated from "Egypten; Forschungen über Land und Volk während eines Zehnjährigen Aufenthalts, von Alfred von Kremer, Leipzig, 1863." Egypt; Exploration of the Country, and Studies of its Inhabitants, during a Ten Years' Residence.

only gipsies travelling about as goldsmiths are called Nuwar, pronounced Nauer.

As, excepting a short notice in Lane's work, nothing has been published concerning the gipsies in Egypt, the following account may be acceptable.

The Ghagar form in Egypt a numerous tribe, travelling through the country as tinkers, rope dancers, monkey showmen, and snake charmers (Psyllos of Herodotus.) The women tell fortunes, are dancers and prostitutes. Information has, however, reached me, from all parts, that besides trading in asses, horses, and camels, nearly the whole small trade in Egypt is in the hands of gipsy pedlars (Bad'dāa'h). They make their purchases in Cairo, where they are well known to the native merchants; they frequent the large fairs of Tanta held twice a year, and also the great fair held on the anniversary of the holy Shilk'ani (Mauled-esh-Shilk'ani) in the month of May. They earn so much money that rich Ghagars are by no means rare. Whilst one portion of the tribe are traders, another portion live in Cairo as snake catchers (H'awi*), and as snake-devouring dervishes (Rifaijjeh); and many a traveller who has seen their disgusting performances in Cairo was not aware that the apparent Mohammeden dervish was a gipsy in disguise. It is this class which frequently come in contact with the European traveller and do good service to the naturalist, for they always have for sale snakes, with or without the poison fangs, jackals, wolves, lizards, etc. The dexterity with which these people discover and catch the snakes is really surprising. Armed simply with a palm stick the operator gives a few knocks on the walls and floors, plays a short tune on his reed pipe, and the snakes make their appearance, which is explained by the fact that there are in most of the old houses of Cairo many snakes, most of which are, however, quite harmless. The inhabitants are, nevertheless, in great fear of them, and no person dares to sleep in a room after the Hawi had declared it to be haunted by a snake.

Ghagar is the collective name designating all gipsies. According to their own account they consist of different tribes; but all of them describe themselves as genuine Arabs, and are very proud of their pure Arabic descent. They pretend to have emigrated from West Africa, but are unable to determine the period. The following circumstance speaks in favour of their assertion, namely, that they all belong to the religious sect of the Malikites, which is in the whole of North-West Africa the chief of the four orthodox sects of Islamism.

Lane, generally so well informed, erroneously asserts that hawi means jugglers generally. The true meaning of the word is "snake catchers", from h'ajjeh, snake.

All of them lead a nomadic life, and provide themselves with licenses given by the police or by the Sheik of the Guild of Rifai-dervishes.

The tribe called Ghawazi is in Egypt the most numerous. This tribe has in all the larger towns and villages female representatives, well versed in all arts of seduction, who become dangerous by their beauty. They call themselves Beramikeh, i. e., Bermekides, and try to trace their origin back to the famous family of the Barmecides, which, after having filled the highest offices in the Chalifate was destroyed by Chalif Harun-al Rashid.

They are proud at the same time of their Bedouin origin, and lead, in fact, a Bedouin life, sleeping in tents and attending fairs. All Ghazieh girls are professional dancers, and all the old women fortunetellers. They rarely marry before they have saved a small fortune, and frequently select a slave for a husband. The husband of a Ghazy is thus little more than her servant; he plays on the flute or strikes the drum whilst she dances; he even introduces to her new acquaintances. There are, however, instances of Ghazies marrying village sheiks, in which cases their conjugal fidelity is as strict as their former life was loose.

The Ghawazi speak the general gipsy dialect used by all the other tribes. The gipsies of Upper Egypt call themselves Saaideh, i. e., people of Said (Upper Egypt). They travel through the country as horse- and ass-dealers, pedlars, and fortune-tellers. Their features are altogether Asiatic; colour, tawny; eyes, black and piercing; hair, black and straight. The women tattoo themselves in blue on the lips, hands, and the breast; they wear large brass earrings and necklets of blue and red beads. They prophesy by means of shells which they carry in a leather bag over the shoulder, and according to the grouping of the shells cast up by the hand they foretell the future. When the Nile begins to rise in the summer they are frequently met with in the streets of Cairo, where they are easily recognised by their leather knapsack and by their cries "nibejjon-ez-zein”, i. e., "we prophesy fine and good things", or also "nidmor-el-ghaib”, i. e., we find out lost things". There is in Cairo a great number of such fortune-tellers who speculate on the credulity of the Cairo women. These fortune-telling gipsies live in a building called Hōsh Bardak, situated under the citadel and opposite the mosque of Sultan Hassan. Their competitors are the Maghrebin soothsayers and sorcerers from the interior of Africa, specially from Darfur. They may be seen sitting on the roadsides prophesying from cards or sand. Prophesying from sand, called Ilm-er-raml, is very old in the east, and must be known to the reader of the Arabian Nights.

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The names of other tribes are Haleb, or also Shahaini and T'alar.

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