passed into the hall, where was erected the scaffold covered with black, she saw with an undismayed countenance the executioners and all the preparations of death. Here her old servant, Sir Andrew Melvil, took an affecting leave of her. The warrant for her execution was then read to her; and during this ceremony she was silent, but showed in her behavior an indifference and unconcern as if the business had nowise regarded her. Before the executioners performed their office, the Dean of Peterborough stepped forth, and though the queen frequently told him that he needed not concern himself about her, that she was settled in the ancient Catholic and Roman religion, and that she meant to lay down her life in defense of that faith, he still thought it his duty to persist in his lectures and exhortations. She now began, with the aid of her two women, to disrobe herself, and the executioner also lent his hand to assist them. She smiled, and said that she was not accustomed to undress herself before so large a company, nor to be served by such valets. Her servants, seeing her in this condition ready to lay her head upon the block, burst into tears and lamentations. She turned about to them, put her finger upon her lips as a sign of imposing silence upon them, and, having given them her blessing, desired them to pray for her. One of her maids, whom she had appointed for that purpose, covered her eyes with a handkerchief; she laid herself down without any sign of fear or trepidation, and her head was severed from her body at two strokes by the executioner. He instantly held it up to the spectators, streaming with blood and agitated with the convulsions of death. The Dean of Peterborough alone exclaimed, "So perish all Queen Elizabeth's enemies!" The Earl of Kent alone replied "Amen!" The attention of all the other spectators was fixed on the melancholy scene before them, and zeal and flattery alike gave place to present pity and admiration of the expiring princess (Feb. 8, 1587).

Thus perished, in the 45th year of her age and 19th of her captivity in England, Mary Queen of Scots, a woman of great accomplishments both of body and mind, natural as well as acquired, but unfortunate in her life, and during one period very unhappy in her conduct. In order to form a just idea of her character, we must set aside one part of her conduct, while she abandoned herself to the guidance of a profligate man, and must consider these faults, whether we admit them to be imprudences or crimes, as the result of an inexplicable though not uncommon inconstancy in the human mind, of the frailty of our nature, of the violence of passion, and of the influence which situations, and sometimes momentary incidents have on persons whose principles are not thoroughly confirmed by experience and reflection. An enumeration of her qual

A.D. 1587.

ELIZABETH'S AFFECTED SORROW.

347 ities might carry the appearance of a panegyric; an account of her conduct must in some parts wear the aspect of severe satire and invective.

§ 22. When the queen was informed of Mary's execution she affected the utmost surprise and indignation. She put herself in deep mourning, and she was seen perpetually bathed in tears, and surrounded only by her maids and women. None of her ministers or counselors dared to approach her; or, if any had such temerity, she chased them from her with the most violent expressions of rage and resentment; they had all of them been guilty of an unpardonable crime in putting to death her dear sister and kinswoman, contrary to her fixed purpose, of which they were sufficiently apprised and acquainted. No sooner was her sorrow so much abated as to leave room for reflection than she wrote a letter of apology to the King of Scots; and, in order the better to appease him, she committed Davison to prison, and ordered him to be tried in the Star Chamber for his misdemeanor. He was condemned to imprisonment during the queen's pleasure, and to pay a fine of £10,000. He remained a long time in custody; and the fine, though it reduced him to beggary, was rigorously levied upon him. James discovered the highest resentment, and refused to admit Elizabeth's envoy into his presence. He recalled his embassadors from England, and seemed to breathe nothing but war and vengeance. The States of Scotland, being assembled, took part in his anger, and professed that they were ready to spend their lives and fortunes in revenge of his mother's death, and in defense of his title to the crown of England. But the judicious representations made to him by Walsingham, joined to the peaceable, unambitious temper of the young prince, prevailed over his resentment, and he fell gradually into a good correspondence with the court of England. It is probable that the queen's chief object in her dissimulation with regard to the execution of Mary was that she might thereby afford James a decent pretense for renewing his friendship with her, on which their mutual interests so much depended.

ELIZABETH CONTINUED. FROM THE EXECUTION OF THE QUEEN OF SCOTS TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH. A.D. 1587-1603.

Naval

§ 1. Preparations of Philip for an Invasion of England. The Invincible Armada. § 2. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. § 3. Expedition against Portugal. § 4. French Affairs. Elizabeth assists Henry IV. Enterprises against Spain. § 5. Elizabeth's Proceedings with her Parliament. § 6. Affairs of France. Raleigh's Expedition to Guiana. § 7. Expeditions to Cadiz and Ferrol. The Earl of Essex. Death of Burleigh and of Philip II. § 8. Affairs of Ireland. Tyrone's Rebellion. Essex Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Disgrace of Essex. § 9. His Insurrection. His Trial and Execution. § 10. Death and Character of Elizabeth. § 11. General Reflections on the Period of the Tudors. Power of the Crown under that Dynasty. § 12. The Constitution intact in Theory. Benevolences. Monopolies. § 13. Relations of the Crown and Commons. § 14. Administration of Justice. § 15. Consequences of the Reformation. Court of High Commission. § 16. General State of the Nation.

§ 1. WHILE Elizabeth insured tranquillity from the attempts of her nearest neighbor, she was not negligent of more distant dangers. She knew that Philip, eager for revenge and zealous to exterminate heresy, had formed, with the sanction and co-operation of the Pope and of the Guises in France, the ambitious project of subduing England, and was secretly preparing a great navy to attack her. Accordingly, she sent Sir Francis Drake with a fleet, soon after Mary's death (1587), to pillage the Spanish coast and destroy the shipping. Drake burned more than 100 ships off Cadiz, and destroyed a vast quantity of stores which had been col

Reverse of medal on preceding page: ALLIDOR. NON. LEDOR: the church on a rock in the midst of a stormy sea.

lected for the invasion of England. Meanwhile Philip continued his preparations with the greatest energy; every part of his vast empire resounded with the noise of armaments; and all his ministers, generals, and admirals were employed in forwarding the design. Vessels of uncommon size and force were built; vast armies were assembled; nor were any doubts entertained but such vast preparations, conducted by officers of consummate skill, must finally be successful; and the Spaniards, ostentatious of their power, and elated with vain hopes, had already denominated their navy the Invincible Armada. Elizabeth meantime made preparations for resistance; nor was she dismayed with that power by which all Europe apprehended she must of necessity be overwhelmed.

Her force, indeed, seemed very unequal to resist so potent an enemy. All the sailors in England amounted at that time to about 14,000 men. The size of the English shipping was in general so small, that, except a few of the queen's ships of war, there were not four vessels belonging to the merchants which exceeded 400 tons. The royal navy consisted of only 34 sail, many of which were of small size; none of them exceeded the bulk of our largest frigates, and most of them deserved rather the name of pinnaces than of ships. The only advantage of the English fleet consisted in the dexterity and courage of the seamen. All the commercial towns of England were required to furnish ships for re-enforcing this small navy; and the citizens of London, in order to show their zeal in the common cause, instead of 15 vessels which they were commanded to equip, voluntarily fitted out double the number. The gentry and nobility hired, and armed,

and manned 43 ships at their own charge; and all the loans of money which the queen demanded were frankly granted by the persons applied to. Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of courage and capacity, was admiral, and took on him the command of the navy; Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, the most renowned seamen in Europe, served under him. On land three large armies were assembled; but the men were raised in haste, and such raw levies were much inferior to the Spaniards in discipline and reputation. The queen did every thing in her power to animate her soldiers and excite the martial spirit of the nation. She appeared on horseback in the camp that was formed at Tilbury; and, riding through the lines, discovered a cheerful and animated countenance, exhorted the soldiers to remember their duty to their country and their religion, and professed her intention, though a woman, to lead them herself into the field against the enemy, and rather to perish in battle than survive the ruin and slavery of her people.

§ 2. The sailing of the Spanish Armada was delayed by the death of the admiral and vice-admiral; and Philip appointed the Duke of Medina Sidonia to the command, a nobleman of great family, but entirely unacquainted with sea affairs. The Armada at last set sail from Lisbon (May 29, 1588), but, being dispersed by a storm, was obliged to put into the Groine (Corunna) to refit. When this was accomplished, the Spaniards with fresh hopes set out again to sea, in prosecution of their enterprise. The fleet consisted of 130 vessels, of which nearly 100 were galleons, and were of greater size than any ever before used in Europe. It carried on board 20,000 soldiers. The plan formed by the King of Spain was that the Armada should sail to Dunkirk, and, having taken on board the Spanish troops in the Netherlands under the command of the Duke of Parma, should thence make sail to the Thames, and, having landed the whole Spanish army, thus com、 plete at one blow the entire conquest of England. On the 19th of July the Spaniards were descried off the Lizard, and Effingham had just time to get out of Plymouth when he saw the Armada coming full sail toward him, disposed in the form a crescent, and stretching the distance of seven miles from the extremity of one division to that of the other. He gave orders not to come to close fight with the Spaniards, where the size of the ships and the numbers of the soldiers would be a disadvantage to the English, but to cannonade them at a distance, and to wait the opportunity which winds, currents, or various accidents must afford him of intercepting some scattered vessels of the enemy. Nor was it long before the event answered expectation. A great ship of Biscay, on board of which was a considerable part of the Spanish money, took fire by accident; and while all hands were employed in ex